Isaia 5
1 Voi cânta Prea Iubitului meu, cântarea Prea Iubitului meu despre via Lui. Prea Iubitul meu avea o vie, pe o câmpie foarte mănoasă.
2 I-a săpat pământul, l-a curăţit de pietre, şi a sădit în el viţele cele mai alese. A zidit un turn în mijlocul ei, şi a săpat şi un teasc, apoi trăgea nădejde că are să -I facă struguri buni, dar a făcut struguri sălbatici.
3 ,,Acum dar, -zice Domnul-locuitori ai Ierusalimului şi bărbaţi ai lui Iuda, judecaţi voi între Mine şi via Mea!
4 Ce aş mai fi putut face viei Mele, şi nu i-am făcut? Pentruce a făcut ea struguri sălbatici, când Eu mă aşteptam să facă struguri buni?
5 Vă voi spune însă acum, ce voi face viei Mele: îi voi smulge gardul, ca să fie păscută de vite; îi voi surpa zidul, ca să fie călcată în picioare;
6 o voi pustii; nu va mai fi curăţită, nici săpată, spini şi mărăcini vor creşte în ea! Voi porunci şi norilor, să nu mai ploaie peste ea.``
7 Via Domnului oştirilor este casa lui Israel, şi bărbaţii lui Iuda sânt viţa pe care o iubea. El se aştepta la judecată, şi când colo, iată sânge vărsat! -Se aştepta la dreptate, şi când colo, iată strigăte de apăsare!
8 Vai de ceice înşiră casă lângă casă şi lipesc ogor lângă ogor, până nu mai rămâne loc, şi locuiesc în mijlocul ţării!
9 Iată ce mi-a descoperit Domnul oştirilor: ,,Hotărât, aceste case multe vor fi pustiite, aceste case mari şi frumoase nu vor mai fi locuite.
10 Chiar zece pogoane de vie nu vor da decât un bat, şi un omer de sămânţă nu va da decât o efă.
11 Vai de cei ce disdedimineaţă aleargă după băuturi ameţitoare, şi şed până târziu noaptea şi se înferbântă de vin!
12 Arfa şi alăuta, timpana, flautul şi vinul le înveselesc ospeţele; dar nu iau seama la lucrarea Domnului, şi nu văd lucrul mânilor Lui.
13 De aceea poporul meu va fi dus pe neaşteptate în robie; boierimea lui va muri de foame, şi gloata lui se va usca de sete.
14 De aceea îşi şi deschide locuinţa morţilor gura, şi îşi lărgeşte peste măsură gâtlejul, ca să se pogoare în ea măreţia şi bogăţia Sionului, cu toată mulţimea lui gălăgioasă şi veselă.
15 Şi astfel, cei mici vor fi doborîţi, cei mari vor fi smeriţi, şi privirile trufaşe vor fi plecate.
16 Dar Domnul oştirilor va fi înălţat prin judecată, şi Dumnezeul cel sfânt va fi sfinţit prin dreptate.
17 Acolo vor paşte mieii ca pe imaşul lor, şi păstori pribegi vor mânca moşiile prăpădite ale bogaţilor.
18 Vai de ceice trag după ei nelegiuirea cu funiile minciunii, şi păcatul, cu şleaurile unei căruţe,
19 şi zic: ,Să-Şi grăbească, să-Şi facă iute lucrarea, ca s-o vedem! Să vină odată hotărârea Sfântului lui Israel şi să se aducă la îndeplinire, ca s-o cunoaştem!``
20 Vai de cei ce numesc răul bine, şi binele rău, cari spun că întunerecul este lumină, şi lumina întunerec, cari dau amărăciunea în loc de dulceaţă, şi dulceaţa în loc de amărăciune!
21 Vai de cei ce se socot înţelepţi, şi se cred pricepuţi!
22 Vai de cei tari când este vorba de băut vin, şi viteji când este vorba de amestecat băuturi tari;
23 cari scot cu faţa curată pe cel vinovat, pentru mită, şi iau drepturile celor nevinovaţi!
24 De aceea, cum mistuie o limbă de foc miriştea, şi cum arde flacăra iarba uscată, tot aşa: ca putregaiul le va fi rădăcina lor, şi floarea li se va risipi în vânt ca ţărâna, căci au nesocotit legea Domnului oştirilor, şi au dispreţuit cuvântul Sfântului lui Israel.
25 De aceea Se şi aprinde Domnul de mânie împotriva poporului Său, Îşi întinde mâna împotriva lui, şi-l loveşte de se zguduie munţii, şi trupurile moarte stau ca noroiul în mijlocul uliţelor. Cu toate acestea, mânia Lui nu se potoleşte, şi mâna Lui este încă întinsă.
26 El ridică un steag popoarelor îndepărtate, şi le fluieră dela un capăt al pământului: şi iată-le, vin repede şi uşor.
27 Niciunul nu este obosit, niciunul nu şovăieşte de oboseală, niciunul nu dormitează, nici nu doarme; niciunuia nu i se descinge brâul dela mijloc, nici nu i se rupe cureaua dela încălţăminte.
28 Săgeţile lor sânt ascuţite, şi toate arcurile încordate; copitele cailor lor parcă sânt cremene, şi roţile carălor lor parcă sânt un vârtej.
29 Răcnesc ca nişte lei, mugesc ca nişte pui de lei; sforăie şi apucă prada, o iau cu ei, şi nimeni nu vine în ajutor.
30 În ziua aceea, va fi asupra lui Iuda un muget, ca mugetul unei furtuni pe mare; uitându-se la pământ, nu vor vedea decât întunerec şi strâmtorare, iar lumina se va întuneca în norii lui.``
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":7002,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Coins","title_en":"Coins","content_ro":"<h3>COINS<\/h3>\n<p>Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>• Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestCoinsinPalestine\">Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>Not until the time of Darius the Great (Darius I of Persia, 521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) did an official government-sponsored coinage become current in Palestine. Those earliest coins were oval-shaped gold darics, along with some silver coins.<\/p>\n<p>“Dram” is another term for the Persian gold daric. It is mentioned in Ezra 2:68-69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), where Zerubbabel’s caravan offered gold darics amounting to $30,000 toward rebuilding the temple. This passage is the first mention of an actual coin in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Almost at the same time that the Persian coins became current in Palestine, the widely popular silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma pieces) of Athens began to find their way to the mercantile centers of the Phoenician, Israelite, and Philistine coasts. Archaeologists have unearthed them in hoards throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. They continued to be used through the Persian period, which lasted until the Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>. The coin was thick and heavy in appearance, but being of high-quality silver, it was in great demand for international commerce. Presumably Greek merchants found they could obtain the most desirable Asiatic imports in exchange for that particular form of currency.<\/p>\n<p>The silver didrachma, or half-drachma, in general use in the Greek Empire from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, continued through Roman times. After Alexander’s conquests, of course, Greek coins were used throughout the Macedonian Empire from present-day Yugoslavia to Pakistan. They were almost certainly employed for business purposes in Judea, for example.<\/p>\n<p>The shekels of the Phoenician trade centers of Tyre and Sidon, which had contributed substantially to the money supply in the Persian period, continued to be accepted in Judea even after the Alexandrian conquest. Typical of Sidon was a silver shekel portraying the battlements and walls of Sidon’s harbor, with a ship lying at anchor and two prancing lions in the foreground. A typical Tyrian shekel showed the god Baal robed and wearing a tiara. He was riding a hippocamp (winged horse with the tail of a fish) on the sea, with a fish or dolphin beneath. The reverse showed an Egyptian-type owl facing right, plus a shepherd’s crook and flail, both royal insignia in Egypt. The stater (or tetradrachma) found by the disciple Peter in a fish’s mouth and used to pay the temple tax for himself and Jesus may have been a Tyrian coin (Mt 17:27; <span>rsv<\/span> “shekel”).<\/p>\n<p>The talent, which represented a certain weight of gold or silver, was a common medium of exchange before the development of coinage. During the Maccabean period, John Hyrcanus saved the city of Jerusalem from destruction in 133 <span>BC<\/span> by paying a ransom from a 900-year-old hoard stored in David’s sepulcher. Three thousand talents of silver were sent to the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidetes in return for his promise to withdraw his troops. Treasure plundered from the temple by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 66 is recorded as amounting to 17 talents. In gold talents that sum would represent the equivalent of the purchase price of about 15 large houses in a modern Western city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CoinagefromtheMaccabeestoHerodAgrippaI\">Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>Even though a native Jewish dynasty assumed the government of the Holy Land, it was many years before any indigenous Jewish coinage was minted. Presumably the inhabitants continued to use the coinage of Tyre and Egypt and of the Seleucid Empire for their commercial transactions. It was formerly supposed that silver shekels bearing images of the chalice and pomegranate cluster dated from the reign of Simon Maccabeus (142–134 <span>BC<\/span>); more recent archaeological discoveries prove that those coins date from the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70).<\/p>\n<p>When the time came to issue the first Jewish coins, the die makers faced several problems. No mint was available, and no local people were skilled in design or die sinking. Coins current in the Near East at that time, which showed a high degree of design and craftsmanship, each bore the portrait head of a ruler or a god. For the Jews to make such coins would have meant contravening the second commandment, “You shall not make for yourself a graven image” (Ex 20:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Not until well into Roman times was a coin struck in Palestine bearing a portrait head of a Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest coinage of the Hasmonean dynasty (the regnal name of the Maccabees) was the small bronze lepton (plural, lepta) of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Simon Maccabeus. The obverse showed two cornucopias with a pomegranate between them. That image symbolized the fertility that God had granted to the land. The reverse contained an inscription within a wreath, “John the high priest and the community of the Jews.” Small bronze lepta from the reign of Alexander Janneus, son of Hyrcanus I, have been found in great numbers. They were evidently much in demand for transactions at the temple, where money changers converted the gentile currency of visiting worshipers into the more acceptable Jewish money. Undoubtedly Hasmonean lepta were the coins Jesus scattered over the pavement of the Court of the Gentiles when he overturned the tables of the money changers (Mt 21:12; Jn 2:15). The lepton, or “mite,” of bronze or copper, worth <span>1<\/span>\/<span>400<\/span> of a shekel, was mentioned by Jesus on another occasion. He praised a widow’s gift of two mites to the temple treasury with the comment that the rich “contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living” (Mk 12:44, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Herod I came to power in Judea under the patronage of Mark Antony and secured the allegiance of the pro-Hasmonean Jews by marrying Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, in 38 <span>BC<\/span>. Herod was empowered to strike his own bronze coins. Although he had a free hand to introduce innovations, Herod’s lepta followed tradition quite faithfully. The lepta carried an anchor with letters meaning “Of King Herod.” The reverse bore the double cornucopias with a pomegranate (or poppy) between them. Herod also minted a large bronze coin with what appears to be a Macedonian helmet on the obverse and a slender tripod on the reverse, along with an inscription of Herod’s name. Other designs he employed included wheat, eagles, and wreaths. He issued no silver coinage, relying instead on the available supplies of silver coins from Tyre, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.<\/p>\n<p>After Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, his son Herod Archelaus assumed control. Lepta from that period bore a hanging cluster of grapes with a Greek inscription, and on the reverse a two-plumed Macedonian helmet. Grapes were an allusion to Israel as the Lord’s vine (Is 5).<\/p>\n<p>When Herod Antipas began his rule, also in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, he had no authority in Judea or Samaria. That portion of the former Jewish kingdom was placed under the control of Roman governors, or procurators, appointed directly by the emperor himself. Most familiar of the Roman procurators of Judea was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). His bronze coinage showed some bold innovations; his designs included representations of instruments used in the Roman religion such as the augur’s wand (resembling a shepherd’s crook in shape) and a ladle used in connection with broth prepared at sacrifices. The reverse bore a wreath enclosing the regnal date of <span>AD<\/span> 30–31. The two lepta put into the temple treasury (Lk 21:2) could have been lepta issued by Pilate or his predecessor. More likely, however, they were the Hasmonean lepta of Hyrcanus or Janneus, which were free of any taint of pagan Roman influence.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44), grandson of Herod the Great, continued the family tradition of ingratiating himself with the Roman overlords. Many of Herod Agrippa’s lepta have been found, showing a conical tasseled umbrella (perhaps symbolizing his royal protection of the people of Palestine) plus a Greek inscription indicating his reign. The reverse showed a bound cluster of three wheat ears and bore the regnal year as the legend.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanCoinsinNewTestamentTimes\">Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>The Roman “as” came into circulation about 348 <span>BC<\/span> as a bronze coin bearing the figure of an animal. The coin was named after the Roman one-pound weight, equivalent to 12 ounces (340 grams) in our modern system. At the time of Christ’s birth, the Roman “as” minted for use in the Asiatic provinces bore the head of the emperor Augustus, with a laurel wreath on the reverse. A smaller bronze quadrans, or quarter “as,” was also minted by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Another bronze coin found in Greek and Roman currency was the assarion, first minted in the first century <span>BC<\/span> but still in use in the Christian period. One type was stamped with a winged sphinx, with an amphora on the reverse. It is still debated whether the coin described as a “farthing” in the <span>kjv<\/span> was in fact a Greek assarion or a Roman “as” or quadrans. The coin is mentioned four times in the NT, most familiarly in the question “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?” (see Mt 5:26; 10:29; Mk 12:42; Lk 12:6, <span>rsv<\/span> “penny”). There is no doubt that the <span>kjv<\/span> translators decided to make the coin seem more familiar to their readers by using the name of the smallest copper coin in circulation in England at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “penny” in the <span>kjv<\/span> is the Greek form of “denarius,” the normal daily wage for a laborer in NT times. In the parable of the laborers in the vineyard, for example, the master agreed to pay each man “a penny” for his day’s work (Mt 20:2, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “a denarius”). “Two pence” was the amount paid to the innkeeper by the good Samaritan (Lk 10:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because of the influence of the Roman denarius on British currency, the English penny has always been represented by the initial letter of its Roman equivalent.<\/p>\n<p>When the denarius, or “penny,” is recognized as a normal day’s wage, the astonishment of Jesus’ disciples when they were expected to find food for 5,000 people is better understood. They exclaimed that “two hundred pennyworth” of food would not feed such a crowd (Jn 6:7, <span>kjv<\/span>); that sum represented more than six months’ work.<\/p>\n<p>As might be expected, the silver and gold coinage current in Palestine during the time of Christ and for the remainder of the first century <span>AD<\/span> came primarily from Rome. The larger silver coins, however, that are referred to as tetradrachmas or staters in the NT came from Egypt, Phoenicia, or Antioch. The silver coin most frequently mentioned in the NT was the Roman denarius or the Greek drachma. Since few drachmas have been found in excavations dating from the first century, it is possible that the term was used in popular speech to refer to the denarius (plural, denarii), which was approximately the same size as the average Greek drachma. Actually, few Greek cities were permitted by their Roman overlords to continue minting drachmas.<\/p>\n<p>Caesar Augustus issued a decree for all the Roman world to be enrolled (Lk 2:1-2) in an empire-wide census just about the time that Jesus was born (6 or 5 <span>BC<\/span>). During his long reign (27 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14), Augustus authorized a large variety of denarii. They generally carried his likeness on their obverse with the inscription “Augustus, son of the divine one” (that is, son of Julius Caesar, who had been voted divine honors by the Roman Senate).<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 22:19 Jesus asked those trying to trick him with a question to show him a coin used to pay the government tax. They handed him a denarius bearing the portrait and inscription of Caesar (Mt 22:21). That coin could have been a denarius of Augustus, who had died some 16 years before, or of Tiberius (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37), who was then on the throne. The silver denarius of Tiberius read “Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus.” The reverse showed the high priestess of the vestal order, flaming torch in hand, seated on her throne facing right. The title “pontif(ex) maxim(us)” referred to Tiberius rather than to the priestess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Money; Money Changer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COINS<\/h3>\n<p>Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>• Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestCoinsinPalestine\">Earliest Coins in Palestine<\/p>\n<p>Not until the time of Darius the Great (Darius I of Persia, 521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) did an official government-sponsored coinage become current in Palestine. Those earliest coins were oval-shaped gold darics, along with some silver coins.<\/p>\n<p>“Dram” is another term for the Persian gold daric. It is mentioned in Ezra 2:68-69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), where Zerubbabel’s caravan offered gold darics amounting to $30,000 toward rebuilding the temple. This passage is the first mention of an actual coin in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Almost at the same time that the Persian coins became current in Palestine, the widely popular silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma pieces) of Athens began to find their way to the mercantile centers of the Phoenician, Israelite, and Philistine coasts. Archaeologists have unearthed them in hoards throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. They continued to be used through the Persian period, which lasted until the Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>. The coin was thick and heavy in appearance, but being of high-quality silver, it was in great demand for international commerce. Presumably Greek merchants found they could obtain the most desirable Asiatic imports in exchange for that particular form of currency.<\/p>\n<p>The silver didrachma, or half-drachma, in general use in the Greek Empire from the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>, continued through Roman times. After Alexander’s conquests, of course, Greek coins were used throughout the Macedonian Empire from present-day Yugoslavia to Pakistan. They were almost certainly employed for business purposes in Judea, for example.<\/p>\n<p>The shekels of the Phoenician trade centers of Tyre and Sidon, which had contributed substantially to the money supply in the Persian period, continued to be accepted in Judea even after the Alexandrian conquest. Typical of Sidon was a silver shekel portraying the battlements and walls of Sidon’s harbor, with a ship lying at anchor and two prancing lions in the foreground. A typical Tyrian shekel showed the god Baal robed and wearing a tiara. He was riding a hippocamp (winged horse with the tail of a fish) on the sea, with a fish or dolphin beneath. The reverse showed an Egyptian-type owl facing right, plus a shepherd’s crook and flail, both royal insignia in Egypt. The stater (or tetradrachma) found by the disciple Peter in a fish’s mouth and used to pay the temple tax for himself and Jesus may have been a Tyrian coin (Mt 17:27; <span>rsv<\/span> “shekel”).<\/p>\n<p>The talent, which represented a certain weight of gold or silver, was a common medium of exchange before the development of coinage. During the Maccabean period, John Hyrcanus saved the city of Jerusalem from destruction in 133 <span>BC<\/span> by paying a ransom from a 900-year-old hoard stored in David’s sepulcher. Three thousand talents of silver were sent to the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidetes in return for his promise to withdraw his troops. Treasure plundered from the temple by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 66 is recorded as amounting to 17 talents. In gold talents that sum would represent the equivalent of the purchase price of about 15 large houses in a modern Western city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CoinagefromtheMaccabeestoHerodAgrippaI\">Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I<\/p>\n<p>Even though a native Jewish dynasty assumed the government of the Holy Land, it was many years before any indigenous Jewish coinage was minted. Presumably the inhabitants continued to use the coinage of Tyre and Egypt and of the Seleucid Empire for their commercial transactions. It was formerly supposed that silver shekels bearing images of the chalice and pomegranate cluster dated from the reign of Simon Maccabeus (142–134 <span>BC<\/span>); more recent archaeological discoveries prove that those coins date from the first Jewish revolt (<span>AD<\/span> 66–70).<\/p>\n<p>When the time came to issue the first Jewish coins, the die makers faced several problems. No mint was available, and no local people were skilled in design or die sinking. Coins current in the Near East at that time, which showed a high degree of design and craftsmanship, each bore the portrait head of a ruler or a god. For the Jews to make such coins would have meant contravening the second commandment, “You shall not make for yourself a graven image” (Ex 20:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Not until well into Roman times was a coin struck in Palestine bearing a portrait head of a Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest coinage of the Hasmonean dynasty (the regnal name of the Maccabees) was the small bronze lepton (plural, lepta) of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Simon Maccabeus. The obverse showed two cornucopias with a pomegranate between them. That image symbolized the fertility that God had granted to the land. The reverse contained an inscription within a wreath, “John the high priest and the community of the Jews.” Small bronze lepta from the reign of Alexander Janneus, son of Hyrcanus I, have been found in great numbers. They were evidently much in demand for transactions at the temple, where money changers converted the gentile currency of visiting worshipers into the more acceptable Jewish money. Undoubtedly Hasmonean lepta were the coins Jesus scattered over the pavement of the Court of the Gentiles when he overturned the tables of the money changers (Mt 21:12; Jn 2:15). The lepton, or “mite,” of bronze or copper, worth <span>1<\/span>\/<span>400<\/span> of a shekel, was mentioned by Jesus on another occasion. He praised a widow’s gift of two mites to the temple treasury with the comment that the rich “contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living” (Mk 12:44, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Herod I came to power in Judea under the patronage of Mark Antony and secured the allegiance of the pro-Hasmonean Jews by marrying Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus II, in 38 <span>BC<\/span>. Herod was empowered to strike his own bronze coins. Although he had a free hand to introduce innovations, Herod’s lepta followed tradition quite faithfully. The lepta carried an anchor with letters meaning “Of King Herod.” The reverse bore the double cornucopias with a pomegranate (or poppy) between them. Herod also minted a large bronze coin with what appears to be a Macedonian helmet on the obverse and a slender tripod on the reverse, along with an inscription of Herod’s name. Other designs he employed included wheat, eagles, and wreaths. He issued no silver coinage, relying instead on the available supplies of silver coins from Tyre, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.<\/p>\n<p>After Herod’s death in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, his son Herod Archelaus assumed control. Lepta from that period bore a hanging cluster of grapes with a Greek inscription, and on the reverse a two-plumed Macedonian helmet. Grapes were an allusion to Israel as the Lord’s vine (Is 5).<\/p>\n<p>When Herod Antipas began his rule, also in 4 <span>BC<\/span>, he had no authority in Judea or Samaria. That portion of the former Jewish kingdom was placed under the control of Roman governors, or procurators, appointed directly by the emperor himself. Most familiar of the Roman procurators of Judea was Pontius Pilate (<span>AD<\/span> 26–36). His bronze coinage showed some bold innovations; his designs included representations of instruments used in the Roman religion such as the augur’s wand (resembling a shepherd’s crook in shape) and a ladle used in connection with broth prepared at sacrifices. The reverse bore a wreath enclosing the regnal date of <span>AD<\/span> 30–31. The two lepta put into the temple treasury (Lk 21:2) could have been lepta issued by Pilate or his predecessor. More likely, however, they were the Hasmonean lepta of Hyrcanus or Janneus, which were free of any taint of pagan Roman influence.<\/p>\n<p>Herod Agrippa I (<span>AD<\/span> 37–44), grandson of Herod the Great, continued the family tradition of ingratiating himself with the Roman overlords. Many of Herod Agrippa’s lepta have been found, showing a conical tasseled umbrella (perhaps symbolizing his royal protection of the people of Palestine) plus a Greek inscription indicating his reign. The reverse showed a bound cluster of three wheat ears and bore the regnal year as the legend.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanCoinsinNewTestamentTimes\">Roman Coins in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>The Roman “as” came into circulation about 348 <span>BC<\/span> as a bronze coin bearing the figure of an animal. The coin was named after the Roman one-pound weight, equivalent to 12 ounces (340 grams) in our modern system. At the time of Christ’s birth, the Roman “as” minted for use in the Asiatic provinces bore the head of the emperor Augustus, with a laurel wreath on the reverse. A smaller bronze quadrans, or quarter “as,” was also minted by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Another bronze coin found in Greek and Roman currency was the assarion, first minted in the first century <span>BC<\/span> but still in use in the Christian period. One type was stamped with a winged sphinx, with an amphora on the reverse. It is still debated whether the coin described as a “farthing” in the <span>kjv<\/span> was in fact a Greek assarion or a Roman “as” or quadrans. The coin is mentioned four times in the NT, most familiarly in the question “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?” (see Mt 5:26; 10:29; Mk 12:42; Lk 12:6, <span>rsv<\/span> “penny”). There is no doubt that the <span>kjv<\/span> translators decided to make the coin seem more familiar to their readers by using the name of the smallest copper coin in circulation in England at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “penny” in the <span>kjv<\/span> is the Greek form of “denarius,” the normal daily wage for a laborer in NT times. In the parable of the laborers in the vineyard, for example, the master agreed to pay each man “a penny” for his day’s work (Mt 20:2, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “a denarius”). “Two pence” was the amount paid to the innkeeper by the good Samaritan (Lk 10:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because of the influence of the Roman denarius on British currency, the English penny has always been represented by the initial letter of its Roman equivalent.<\/p>\n<p>When the denarius, or “penny,” is recognized as a normal day’s wage, the astonishment of Jesus’ disciples when they were expected to find food for 5,000 people is better understood. They exclaimed that “two hundred pennyworth” of food would not feed such a crowd (Jn 6:7, <span>kjv<\/span>); that sum represented more than six months’ work.<\/p>\n<p>As might be expected, the silver and gold coinage current in Palestine during the time of Christ and for the remainder of the first century <span>AD<\/span> came primarily from Rome. The larger silver coins, however, that are referred to as tetradrachmas or staters in the NT came from Egypt, Phoenicia, or Antioch. The silver coin most frequently mentioned in the NT was the Roman denarius or the Greek drachma. Since few drachmas have been found in excavations dating from the first century, it is possible that the term was used in popular speech to refer to the denarius (plural, denarii), which was approximately the same size as the average Greek drachma. Actually, few Greek cities were permitted by their Roman overlords to continue minting drachmas.<\/p>\n<p>Caesar Augustus issued a decree for all the Roman world to be enrolled (Lk 2:1-2) in an empire-wide census just about the time that Jesus was born (6 or 5 <span>BC<\/span>). During his long reign (27 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 14), Augustus authorized a large variety of denarii. They generally carried his likeness on their obverse with the inscription “Augustus, son of the divine one” (that is, son of Julius Caesar, who had been voted divine honors by the Roman Senate).<\/p>\n<p>In Matthew 22:19 Jesus asked those trying to trick him with a question to show him a coin used to pay the government tax. They handed him a denarius bearing the portrait and inscription of Caesar (Mt 22:21). That coin could have been a denarius of Augustus, who had died some 16 years before, or of Tiberius (<span>AD<\/span> 14–37), who was then on the throne. The silver denarius of Tiberius read “Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus.” The reverse showed the high priestess of the vestal order, flaming torch in hand, seated on her throne facing right. The title “pontif(ex) maxim(us)” referred to Tiberius rather than to the priestess.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Minerals and Metals; Money; Money Changer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COINS Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century BC. Preview • Earliest Coins in Palestine • Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I • Roman Coins in New Testament Times Earliest Coins in Palestine Not until the...","summary_en":"COINS Pieces of metal used and accepted as a medium of exchange. A coin has a specific weight and bears some type of authentication to make it easily recognizable. The word “coin” originally referred to a wedge-shaped die or stamp used to “strike” the metal blank. The first coins may have been minted in the late eighth century BC. Preview • Earliest Coins in Palestine • Coinage from the Maccabees to Herod Agrippa I • Roman Coins in New Testament Times Earliest Coins in Palestine Not until the...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17794,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51083,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","summary_en":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51084,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","summary_en":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","summary_en":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78709,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","summary_en":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78710,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","summary_en":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78711,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","summary_en":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106335,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","summary_en":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106336,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","summary_en":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106337,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","summary_en":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133961,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-30<\/strong> The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","summary_en":"5:1-30 The prophet pronounced judgment through song (5:1-7) and prophecies of woe (5:8-30). Although Israel’s future condition would be one of purity and fellowship with God (4:2-6), that future cannot ignore the present sinful condition of the people and their leaders.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133962,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-7<\/strong> The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","summary_en":"5:1-7 The Song of the Vineyard expresses in poetic form God’s indictment of the wicked leadership that had ruined his vineyard, Israel. Like some wisdom literature, it presents readers with an account of a puzzling situation (5:1-2) before giving its spiritual significance (5:3-7). The theme of the vineyard’s transformation is found again in ch 27 and in Jesus’ teaching (Matt 21:33; Mark 12:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133963,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1<\/strong> The <em>one I love<\/em> refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s <em>vineyard,<\/em> see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","summary_en":"5:1 The one I love refers to the Lord; the prophet was singing this song on the Lord’s behalf. • At first, the song sounds like a love song, but by 5:3 readers realize it is actually a complaint. • On Israel as God’s vineyard, see also 3:14; Matt 21:33-46; John 15:1-17.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61040,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","title_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","summary_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88666,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","title_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","summary_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116292,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","title_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","summary_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143918,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","title_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Grief over Apostasy<\/h3>\n<p>The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15).<\/p>\n<p>The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. There comes a point, as in the time of Noah (Gen 6:5-7), when God’s patience runs out. For the Israelites who inhabited the land of the judges, that time had come. At one point, after the Israelites had turned to worship other gods and God had allowed them to be oppressed by their enemies, God responded to their plea for help by saying, “Go and cry out to the gods you have chosen! Let them rescue you” (Judg 10:14). Yet, even then, when Israel repeated its plea for mercy, rid themselves of their idols, and submitted to the Lord’s justice (10:10, 15-16), he provided help.<\/p>\n<p>God longs for people to turn to him in repentance, not wanting anyone to be destroyed (2 Pet 3:9). And in his justice, he “makes sinners right in his sight when they believe in Jesus” (Rom 3:26). He has taken upon himself the grievous weight of our sin (see Isa 53:3-12; 2 Cor 5:19-21) and given us the opportunity to receive his grace.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:5-7; Judg 10:6-16; Isa 5:1-7; 53:3-12; 63:10; Hos 11:8-9; Eph 4:30<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","summary_en":"God’s Grief over Apostasy The God of the universe is grieved by his people’s misery (10:16; Hos 11:8-9). Even when repeatedly spurned, God’s love is more powerful than his wrath, and his compassion exceeds his indignation. That does not mean that his love negates his justice, however, and people will ultimately be judged in the end for their choices and actions (see 2Tim 4:1; Rev 20:11-15). The entire era of the judges shows what happens in God’s heart when his people repeatedly spurn him. Th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":765,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Agriculture*","title_en":"Agriculture*","content_ro":"<h3>AGRICULTURE*<\/h3>\n<p>During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Herding<\/p>\n<p>• Field Cropping<\/p>\n<p>• Fruit Raising<\/p>\n<p>• Cultivating<\/p>\n<p>• Harvesting<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Herding\">Herding<\/p>\n<p>Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and clothing while requiring a minimum of techniques and equipment.<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchs were mainly herdsmen, pasturing their sheep and cattle on common land and generally neglecting to till the soil. Jacob and his sons entered Egypt as shepherds (Gn 47:3). Later this pastoral life is still found in the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh in Transjordan (Nm 32:1) and in certain of the tribes dwelling in the western Palestinian hills (1 Sm 25:2). Herding continued to be a part of Hebrew agriculture even in postnomadic days, partly because the animals utilized less productive lands and partly because of the people’s traditions. Important among these traditions were the sacrifices performed in the temple.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FieldCropping\">Field Cropping<\/p>\n<p>Most authorities agree that the Israelites learned field agriculture from the Canaanites, since contact with these people was contemporaneous with the settling of the Promised Land. The raising of grain is known to have existed before that time. Cain was a tiller of the soil (Gn 4:2), although it is uncertain what he raised. Archaeologists date the existence of grain farming to around 6800 <span>BC<\/span> in the Near East. Isaac sowed in Gerar (Gn 26:12), and Joseph dreamed of sheaves of grain (Gn 37:6-7). Joseph probably learned more about farming grain from the Egyptians, who raised it on the fertile soils of the Nile floodplain.<\/p>\n<p>Yet it was from contact with the Canaanites that Israelites began to raise grain. The productivity of Canaan was reported by Joshua and Caleb at Kadesh-barnea (Nm 13:26), and the Canaanites, who were later conquered, were no doubt made to initiate their conquerors into agricultural practices. Probably such a relationship contributed to the continual Israelite lapses into idolatry (Jgs 9:27). How rapidly they made the transition from the purely nomadic life is not clear. Some tribes never did shed the nomadic way, but cultivation of the soil seems to have been common by the time of the kings (2 Sm 14:30).<\/p>\n<p>Of the cereals raised, wheat was one of the most important. Solomon sent great amounts of it, along with barley and oil, to Hiram (2 Chr 2:10), and it continued to be a chief item of export (Ez 27:17). Barley was second in importance. In early times it was the chief ingredient of bread (Jgs 7:13); later it became an important food for the poorer classes (Jn 6:9, 13). It was also fed to cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Other field crops were beans and lentils (2 Sm 17:28), which were ground into meal and sometimes used for bread (Ez 4:9). Leeks, garlic, and onions were raised for seasoning, and cumin, coriander, dill, mint, rue, and mustard for spices. Flax was important (Jos 2:6). Some cotton was grown (Is 19:9). The fiber supply was supplemented with wool. By Roman times cotton had become much more important than flax.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitRaising\">Fruit Raising<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites became well settled, orchards and vineyards were planted and came to be symbols of prosperity. Vineyards supplied wine to drink. Olive orchards provided oil for cooking, cosmetics, and medicine. Figs and pomegranates were also grown. For all of these crops more skill and equipment became necessary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cultivating\">Cultivating<\/p>\n<p>Throughout biblical times, much of the labor for agriculture came from the farmer himself. To plant for the first time, it was necessary to clear the land of forest (Jos 17:18), stones (Is 5:2), weeds, and thorns. Sometimes the thin soil on hillsides was terraced, and sometimes irrigation was employed. Such tasks limited the size of farms so that only the wealthy, such as Job and Boaz, had large holdings.<\/p>\n<p>To till the land, farmers used oxen or cows to pull very primitive plows (Jgs 14:18; Am 6:12). Occasionally an ass was used (Dt 22:10). Clods were broken with a hoe or the driver’s goad. The surface was evened by drawing a simple harrow, perhaps only a thornbush, or a stoneboat over it. Seed was sown by hand, sometimes carefully in the furrow, and covered lightly with the harrow or stoneboat. Weeds were controlled by the plow, harrow, or hoe.<\/p>\n\n<p>Implements did not change much during Bible times. The plow consisted of an upright J-shaped piece of hardwood so fixed to be drawn by oxen at one end and held by the driver at the other. Such a primitive device could break up only four to five inches (10 to 13 centimeters) of soil. After the exodus, iron became available for the tip of the plow (1 Sm 13:20), but this served mainly to cut down wear on the point.<\/p>\n<p>The use of fertilizer was very limited on Palestinian farms. Of course, ceremonial law requiring that the soil lie fallow every seventh year helped to replenish water and nutrients, or at least delay their depletion. Manuring of fields was not common because dung was used for fuel. However, there is some mention of this practice in Scripture (Lk 13:8, where dung is placed around trees). There is mention in the Mishnah of the use of wood ashes, leaves, blood of slaughtered animals, and oil scum for fertilizer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Harvesting\">Harvesting<\/p>\n<p>Seeding was done at the beginning of the rainy season and harvesting was begun at the end. Harvesting lasted at least seven weeks. Some crops were pulled up by the roots (pulse), others were dug with a hoe (some grain), but most were cut with a sickle. Iron sickles have been found in archaeological excavations, some with cutting edges set with flakes of flint. The cut grain was tied in sheaves (Ps 126:6) and cast into heaps to be transported to the threshing floor. Barley was harvested first and wheat last.<\/p>\n<p>Small quantities of grain, dill, cumin, and other small crops were beaten out with a flail (Jgs 6:11; Ru 2:17), but most grain was threshed on a floor placed on high ground so that the wind would carry off the chaff. The usual method was to scatter the loosened bundles of straw on the floor and to drive oxen over them to dislodge the grains. Sometimes heavy implements were drawn over the straw (Is 28:27; 41:15). These were weighted by stones and ridden by the driver. The resulting bits of straw, or chaff, were separated from the grain by a tedious winnowing process that involved throwing the material in the air with a fork or shovel (Is 30:24; Jer 15:7). The lighter straw would be blown to the edge of the floor, and the grain would collect at the feet of the worker. The chaff was burned or used as fodder. Grain was sifted (Am 9:9), shoveled into a heap, and later stored in covered pits in the field (Jer 41:8). Sometimes storehouses or granaries were used (Dt 28:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plants; Harvest; Palestine; Vines, Vineyard; Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGRICULTURE*<\/h3>\n<p>During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Herding<\/p>\n<p>• Field Cropping<\/p>\n<p>• Fruit Raising<\/p>\n<p>• Cultivating<\/p>\n<p>• Harvesting<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Herding\">Herding<\/p>\n<p>Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and clothing while requiring a minimum of techniques and equipment.<\/p>\n<p>The patriarchs were mainly herdsmen, pasturing their sheep and cattle on common land and generally neglecting to till the soil. Jacob and his sons entered Egypt as shepherds (Gn 47:3). Later this pastoral life is still found in the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh in Transjordan (Nm 32:1) and in certain of the tribes dwelling in the western Palestinian hills (1 Sm 25:2). Herding continued to be a part of Hebrew agriculture even in postnomadic days, partly because the animals utilized less productive lands and partly because of the people’s traditions. Important among these traditions were the sacrifices performed in the temple.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FieldCropping\">Field Cropping<\/p>\n<p>Most authorities agree that the Israelites learned field agriculture from the Canaanites, since contact with these people was contemporaneous with the settling of the Promised Land. The raising of grain is known to have existed before that time. Cain was a tiller of the soil (Gn 4:2), although it is uncertain what he raised. Archaeologists date the existence of grain farming to around 6800 <span>BC<\/span> in the Near East. Isaac sowed in Gerar (Gn 26:12), and Joseph dreamed of sheaves of grain (Gn 37:6-7). Joseph probably learned more about farming grain from the Egyptians, who raised it on the fertile soils of the Nile floodplain.<\/p>\n<p>Yet it was from contact with the Canaanites that Israelites began to raise grain. The productivity of Canaan was reported by Joshua and Caleb at Kadesh-barnea (Nm 13:26), and the Canaanites, who were later conquered, were no doubt made to initiate their conquerors into agricultural practices. Probably such a relationship contributed to the continual Israelite lapses into idolatry (Jgs 9:27). How rapidly they made the transition from the purely nomadic life is not clear. Some tribes never did shed the nomadic way, but cultivation of the soil seems to have been common by the time of the kings (2 Sm 14:30).<\/p>\n<p>Of the cereals raised, wheat was one of the most important. Solomon sent great amounts of it, along with barley and oil, to Hiram (2 Chr 2:10), and it continued to be a chief item of export (Ez 27:17). Barley was second in importance. In early times it was the chief ingredient of bread (Jgs 7:13); later it became an important food for the poorer classes (Jn 6:9, 13). It was also fed to cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Other field crops were beans and lentils (2 Sm 17:28), which were ground into meal and sometimes used for bread (Ez 4:9). Leeks, garlic, and onions were raised for seasoning, and cumin, coriander, dill, mint, rue, and mustard for spices. Flax was important (Jos 2:6). Some cotton was grown (Is 19:9). The fiber supply was supplemented with wool. By Roman times cotton had become much more important than flax.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitRaising\">Fruit Raising<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites became well settled, orchards and vineyards were planted and came to be symbols of prosperity. Vineyards supplied wine to drink. Olive orchards provided oil for cooking, cosmetics, and medicine. Figs and pomegranates were also grown. For all of these crops more skill and equipment became necessary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cultivating\">Cultivating<\/p>\n<p>Throughout biblical times, much of the labor for agriculture came from the farmer himself. To plant for the first time, it was necessary to clear the land of forest (Jos 17:18), stones (Is 5:2), weeds, and thorns. Sometimes the thin soil on hillsides was terraced, and sometimes irrigation was employed. Such tasks limited the size of farms so that only the wealthy, such as Job and Boaz, had large holdings.<\/p>\n<p>To till the land, farmers used oxen or cows to pull very primitive plows (Jgs 14:18; Am 6:12). Occasionally an ass was used (Dt 22:10). Clods were broken with a hoe or the driver’s goad. The surface was evened by drawing a simple harrow, perhaps only a thornbush, or a stoneboat over it. Seed was sown by hand, sometimes carefully in the furrow, and covered lightly with the harrow or stoneboat. Weeds were controlled by the plow, harrow, or hoe.<\/p>\n\n<p>Implements did not change much during Bible times. The plow consisted of an upright J-shaped piece of hardwood so fixed to be drawn by oxen at one end and held by the driver at the other. Such a primitive device could break up only four to five inches (10 to 13 centimeters) of soil. After the exodus, iron became available for the tip of the plow (1 Sm 13:20), but this served mainly to cut down wear on the point.<\/p>\n<p>The use of fertilizer was very limited on Palestinian farms. Of course, ceremonial law requiring that the soil lie fallow every seventh year helped to replenish water and nutrients, or at least delay their depletion. Manuring of fields was not common because dung was used for fuel. However, there is some mention of this practice in Scripture (Lk 13:8, where dung is placed around trees). There is mention in the Mishnah of the use of wood ashes, leaves, blood of slaughtered animals, and oil scum for fertilizer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Harvesting\">Harvesting<\/p>\n<p>Seeding was done at the beginning of the rainy season and harvesting was begun at the end. Harvesting lasted at least seven weeks. Some crops were pulled up by the roots (pulse), others were dug with a hoe (some grain), but most were cut with a sickle. Iron sickles have been found in archaeological excavations, some with cutting edges set with flakes of flint. The cut grain was tied in sheaves (Ps 126:6) and cast into heaps to be transported to the threshing floor. Barley was harvested first and wheat last.<\/p>\n<p>Small quantities of grain, dill, cumin, and other small crops were beaten out with a flail (Jgs 6:11; Ru 2:17), but most grain was threshed on a floor placed on high ground so that the wind would carry off the chaff. The usual method was to scatter the loosened bundles of straw on the floor and to drive oxen over them to dislodge the grains. Sometimes heavy implements were drawn over the straw (Is 28:27; 41:15). These were weighted by stones and ridden by the driver. The resulting bits of straw, or chaff, were separated from the grain by a tedious winnowing process that involved throwing the material in the air with a fork or shovel (Is 30:24; Jer 15:7). The lighter straw would be blown to the edge of the floor, and the grain would collect at the feet of the worker. The chaff was burned or used as fodder. Grain was sifted (Am 9:9), shoveled into a heap, and later stored in covered pits in the field (Jer 41:8). Sometimes storehouses or granaries were used (Dt 28:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plants; Harvest; Palestine; Vines, Vineyard; Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGRICULTURE* During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people. Preview • Herding • Field Cropping • Fruit Raising • Cultivating • Harvesting Herding Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and...","summary_en":"AGRICULTURE* During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people. Preview • Herding • Field Cropping • Fruit Raising • Cultivating • Harvesting Herding Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30764,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Watchtower","title_en":"Watchtower","content_ro":"<h3>WATCHTOWER<\/h3>\n<p>Platform from which farmers protected their land and livestock and from which soldiers guarded their cities. Watchtowers were built in the vineyards of Palestine. From the tower the watchman was assigned to oversee the vineyard, protecting it from wild animals and thieves (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mk 12:1). Such structures are still used for similar purposes in Palestine and serve as the living quarters for the vineyard workers. Some watchtowers, like the tower of Eder (Gn 35:21), were constructed in wilderness areas. They provided a protected shelter for shepherds to watch their flocks and a fortified outpost for sentinels to guard a city and to safeguard its commerce from marauding bandits (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 20:24; Is 32:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WATCHTOWER<\/h3>\n<p>Platform from which farmers protected their land and livestock and from which soldiers guarded their cities. Watchtowers were built in the vineyards of Palestine. From the tower the watchman was assigned to oversee the vineyard, protecting it from wild animals and thieves (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mk 12:1). Such structures are still used for similar purposes in Palestine and serve as the living quarters for the vineyard workers. Some watchtowers, like the tower of Eder (Gn 35:21), were constructed in wilderness areas. They provided a protected shelter for shepherds to watch their flocks and a fortified outpost for sentinels to guard a city and to safeguard its commerce from marauding bandits (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 20:24; Is 32:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WATCHTOWER Platform from which farmers protected their land and livestock and from which soldiers guarded their cities. Watchtowers were built in the vineyards of Palestine. From the tower the watchman was assigned to oversee the vineyard, protecting it from wild animals and thieves (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mk 12:1). Such structures are still used for similar purposes in Palestine and serve as the living quarters for the vineyard workers. Some watchtowers, like the tower of Eder (Gn 35:21), were co...","summary_en":"WATCHTOWER Platform from which farmers protected their land and livestock and from which soldiers guarded their cities. Watchtowers were built in the vineyards of Palestine. From the tower the watchman was assigned to oversee the vineyard, protecting it from wild animals and thieves (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mk 12:1). Such structures are still used for similar purposes in Palestine and serve as the living quarters for the vineyard workers. Some watchtowers, like the tower of Eder (Gn 35:21), were co...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38467,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Winepress","title_en":"Winepress","content_ro":"<h3>WINEPRESS<\/h3>\n<p>A sunken area (Jgs 6:11) into which the grape harvest was thrown and then trodden with bare feet, amid shouts of joy and traditional vintage work songs (Jer 48:33; cf. Is 65:8). The red juice flowed through spouts into jars. Full winepresses meant prosperity; deserted ones spoke of destitution. The common winepress was a natural landmark (Jgs 7:25; Zec 14:10); a privately owned one indicated the special care and efficiency of the vineyard’s owner (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33).<\/p>\n<p>Grape treading provided a dramatic metaphor for the ruthless trampling by invading armies (Lam 1:15). This vivid metaphor of battle is mingled with divine judgment (Is 63:1-6) and anticipates the Lord’s final judgment, spoken of as “the winepress of the wrath of God” (Rv 14:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Wine.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WINEPRESS<\/h3>\n<p>A sunken area (Jgs 6:11) into which the grape harvest was thrown and then trodden with bare feet, amid shouts of joy and traditional vintage work songs (Jer 48:33; cf. Is 65:8). The red juice flowed through spouts into jars. Full winepresses meant prosperity; deserted ones spoke of destitution. The common winepress was a natural landmark (Jgs 7:25; Zec 14:10); a privately owned one indicated the special care and efficiency of the vineyard’s owner (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33).<\/p>\n<p>Grape treading provided a dramatic metaphor for the ruthless trampling by invading armies (Lam 1:15). This vivid metaphor of battle is mingled with divine judgment (Is 63:1-6) and anticipates the Lord’s final judgment, spoken of as “the winepress of the wrath of God” (Rv 14:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Wine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WINEPRESS A sunken area (Jgs 6:11) into which the grape harvest was thrown and then trodden with bare feet, amid shouts of joy and traditional vintage work songs (Jer 48:33; cf. Is 65:8). The red juice flowed through spouts into jars. Full winepresses meant prosperity; deserted ones spoke of destitution. The common winepress was a natural landmark (Jgs 7:25; Zec 14:10); a privately owned one indicated the special care and efficiency of the vineyard’s owner (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33). Grape treading p...","summary_en":"WINEPRESS A sunken area (Jgs 6:11) into which the grape harvest was thrown and then trodden with bare feet, amid shouts of joy and traditional vintage work songs (Jer 48:33; cf. Is 65:8). The red juice flowed through spouts into jars. Full winepresses meant prosperity; deserted ones spoke of destitution. The common winepress was a natural landmark (Jgs 7:25; Zec 14:10); a privately owned one indicated the special care and efficiency of the vineyard’s owner (Is 5:2; Mt 21:33). Grape treading p...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51086,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","summary_en":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78712,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","summary_en":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106338,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","summary_en":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133964,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:2","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:2<\/strong> The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the <em>best vines<\/em>—ones that had the potential for abundant <em>sweet grapes<\/em>. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the <em>bitter<\/em> grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","summary_en":"5:2 The Lord gave the best care to his vineyard, preparing and nursing it as an expert agriculturalist. He watched over it with great attentiveness, planting the best vines—ones that had the potential for abundant sweet grapes. God had great expectations of Israel as his people (see Exod 19:5-6), so the bitter grapes they produced—their unrighteous deeds—were useless and disappointing (cp. Gal 5:22-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":51087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","summary_en":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78713,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","summary_en":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106339,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","summary_en":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133965,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3-4<\/strong> Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • <em>you judge:<\/em> Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","summary_en":"5:3-4 Clearly, the Lord had graciously done everything possible for the vineyard. He was not to blame for the bitter grapes. • you judge: Isaiah wanted the audience to condemn the vineyard before he revealed that in fact they were the vineyard (5:7). This rhetorical tactic is similar to the one Nathan used to confront David (2 Sam 12:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":51088,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","summary_en":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78714,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","summary_en":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106340,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","summary_en":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133966,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:5","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:5-6<\/strong> The Lord promised to make his <em>vineyard<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","summary_en":"5:5-6 The Lord promised to make his vineyard, Israel, a desolate place because it was fit only for destruction. Later, Isaiah prophesied the gracious, glorious transformation of Israel from desolation to fruitful vitality (see 55:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":51089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","summary_en":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78715,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","summary_en":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106341,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","summary_en":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133967,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> The withholding of <em>rain<\/em> was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","summary_en":"5:6 The withholding of rain was at times a divine judgment (Deut 28:23-24; Hag 1:11; 2:16). It was especially devastating to a society that depended heavily on agriculture.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":51090,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78716,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106342,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133968,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:7","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:7<\/strong> The identification of <em>Israel<\/em> as <em>the vineyard<\/em> is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected <em>justice<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) but saw only <em>oppression<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mispakh<\/span>) of the needy. Instead of <em>righteousness<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsedaqah<\/span>), there were <em>cries of violence<\/em> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tse‘aqah<\/span>) against the poor (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:7 The identification of Israel as the vineyard is a surprise that resolves the riddle of this passage. • Here, a powerful play on Hebrew words indicted Israel. The Lord expected justice (Hebrew mishpat) but saw only oppression (mispakh) of the needy. Instead of righteousness (tsedaqah), there were cries of violence (tse‘aqah) against the poor (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63939,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64653,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91565,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92279,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119191,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119905,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146817,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147531,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":4138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beggar","title_en":"Beggar","content_ro":"<h3>BEGGAR<\/h3>\n<p>One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. There were regulations such as the Sabbath year, the year of remission to those indebted (Lv 25). In that year the produce of the land was left to the poor and destitute (Ex 23:11), and all debts were canceled (Dt 15:1). The duty of lending liberally to the poor was promoted (vv 7-11), and hired laborers were protected (24:14-15). The purpose was that “there should be no more poor among you” (15:4). Indeed, in the early days of Israelite settlement, all Israelites enjoyed a comparable standard of living.<\/p>\n<p>In excavations at Tirsah near Nablus, the size and arrangements of houses of the tenth century <span>BC<\/span> are all about the same. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a striking contrast, with houses on the same site clearly divided into the town’s richer and poorer quarters. The social revolution between those two centuries was associated with the rise of the Israelite monarchy and growth of a class of officials who gained private profits from their positions. The prophets condemned the fact that wealth was ill-gotten and badly distributed in their day (e.g., Is 5:8; Hos 12:8; Am 8:4-7; Mi 2:2). The prophet Amos denounced creditors who felt no pity for the poor (Am 2:6-8; 8:6). Yet, throughout the OT, there is essentially no reference to beggars. During the intertestamental period, however, almsgiving became an important religious duty.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, begging seems to be prevalent. In the ministry of Jesus, references are made to a blind beggar (Jn 9:8-9), to blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-52), and to Lazarus, a godly beggar who is contrasted with a rich man (Lk 16:19-31). The apostles Peter and John encountered a crippled beggar by the “Beautiful,” or Nicanor, Gate in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1-11). Jesus rebuked an ostentatious show of almsgiving (Mt 6:1-4) but stressed the importance of giving to the poor from right motives (Mt 5:42-48). By the time of Jesus, Jerusalem had become a center for beggars, probably because almsgiving in the Holy City was then regarded as particularly meritorious. Begging in Jerusalem was concentrated around the holy places. The pool of Beth-zatha was a place of healing, and the sick, blind, lame, and paralyzed lay there to beg as well as to get into the waters for healing (Jn 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian community, the first organization of officers was made to provide for a fair distribution of funds to the poor (Acts 4:32-35; 6:1-6). On the first day of each week, some portion of each Christian’s income was to be allotted to the needy (11:27-30; Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4). Possibly the poverty of Palestine was made worse by heavy Roman taxation; tax gatherers as well as beggars are prominent in the Gospel narratives. It has also been suggested that the rise of the Zealots was closely associated with the social factor of poverty; the revolutionary Zealots were largely comprised of society’s “dregs,” according to the Jewish historian Josephus. In <span>AD<\/span> 66 the Zealots burned the Jerusalem archives, no doubt intending to destroy the records of their debts kept there. Josephus reports that before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, gangs of beggars were terrorizing the whole city. <em>See<\/em> Alms; Poor, The.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEGGAR<\/h3>\n<p>One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. There were regulations such as the Sabbath year, the year of remission to those indebted (Lv 25). In that year the produce of the land was left to the poor and destitute (Ex 23:11), and all debts were canceled (Dt 15:1). The duty of lending liberally to the poor was promoted (vv 7-11), and hired laborers were protected (24:14-15). The purpose was that “there should be no more poor among you” (15:4). Indeed, in the early days of Israelite settlement, all Israelites enjoyed a comparable standard of living.<\/p>\n<p>In excavations at Tirsah near Nablus, the size and arrangements of houses of the tenth century <span>BC<\/span> are all about the same. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a striking contrast, with houses on the same site clearly divided into the town’s richer and poorer quarters. The social revolution between those two centuries was associated with the rise of the Israelite monarchy and growth of a class of officials who gained private profits from their positions. The prophets condemned the fact that wealth was ill-gotten and badly distributed in their day (e.g., Is 5:8; Hos 12:8; Am 8:4-7; Mi 2:2). The prophet Amos denounced creditors who felt no pity for the poor (Am 2:6-8; 8:6). Yet, throughout the OT, there is essentially no reference to beggars. During the intertestamental period, however, almsgiving became an important religious duty.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, begging seems to be prevalent. In the ministry of Jesus, references are made to a blind beggar (Jn 9:8-9), to blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-52), and to Lazarus, a godly beggar who is contrasted with a rich man (Lk 16:19-31). The apostles Peter and John encountered a crippled beggar by the “Beautiful,” or Nicanor, Gate in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1-11). Jesus rebuked an ostentatious show of almsgiving (Mt 6:1-4) but stressed the importance of giving to the poor from right motives (Mt 5:42-48). By the time of Jesus, Jerusalem had become a center for beggars, probably because almsgiving in the Holy City was then regarded as particularly meritorious. Begging in Jerusalem was concentrated around the holy places. The pool of Beth-zatha was a place of healing, and the sick, blind, lame, and paralyzed lay there to beg as well as to get into the waters for healing (Jn 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian community, the first organization of officers was made to provide for a fair distribution of funds to the poor (Acts 4:32-35; 6:1-6). On the first day of each week, some portion of each Christian’s income was to be allotted to the needy (11:27-30; Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4). Possibly the poverty of Palestine was made worse by heavy Roman taxation; tax gatherers as well as beggars are prominent in the Gospel narratives. It has also been suggested that the rise of the Zealots was closely associated with the social factor of poverty; the revolutionary Zealots were largely comprised of society’s “dregs,” according to the Jewish historian Josephus. In <span>AD<\/span> 66 the Zealots burned the Jerusalem archives, no doubt intending to destroy the records of their debts kept there. Josephus reports that before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, gangs of beggars were terrorizing the whole city. <em>See<\/em> Alms; Poor, The.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEGGAR One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant. Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor. Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. T...","summary_en":"BEGGAR One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant. Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor. Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. T...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8344,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cursed Curse","title_en":"Cursed Curse","content_ro":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","summary_en":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31521,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33071,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Riches","title_en":"Riches","content_ro":"<h3>RICHES<\/h3>\n<p>Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16).<\/p>\n<p>God made all things for people to enjoy (1 Tm 6:17). That is why being rich is a matter for thanksgiving, not embarrassment. Every possession that a person can possibly own comes from the Creator (Ps 24:1), so all wealth can rightly be counted as a blessing from God. It was in this spirit that David could pray to God, “Riches and honour come of thee” (1 Chr 29:12, <span>kjv<\/span>). Even when wealth is earned by hard work, the Bible reminds its readers that both their talents and their resources are God-given. Jesus illustrates this important lesson in the parables of the 10 talents (Mt 25:14-30) and the 10 minas (Lk 19:11-26).<\/p>\n<p>Nowhere, then, does the Bible say that having possessions and becoming wealthy are wrong in themselves. There would be no point in the Ten Commandments’ ban on stealing and envy if it was wrong for God’s people to own anything at all. Jesus himself never taught that it was sinful to be rich.<\/p>\n<p>However, Jesus warned that riches could keep a person out of the kingdom: “How hard it is for rich people to get into the Kingdom of God!” (Mk 10:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Affluence, he taught, can destroy peace (Mt 6:24-34), blind people to the needs of others (Lk 16:19-31), stand between individuals and the gateway to eternal life (Mk 10:17-27), and even bring God’s judgment (Lk 12:16-21). He told his disciples not to accumulate personal wealth (Mt 6:19), and he praised those who gave up their possessions (19:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ warnings against wealth are not, in fact, directed against riches in themselves. What he condemns is the wrong attitudes many people have toward acquiring wealth, and the wrong ways in which they use it. Longing for riches, not having them, chokes the spiritual life like weeds in a field of grain (Mt 13:22). The greedy desire to have more wealth doomed the unforgiving servant (18:23-35). And the rich man’s selfishness, not his wealth, sealed his fate (Lk 16:19-26). Paul captured the main theme in these parables when he said, “The <em>love<\/em> of money is at the root of all kinds of evil” (1 Tm 6:10, <span>nlt<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest danger of all arises when riches gain the mastery in a person’s life. The whole Bible warns against this idolatrous attitude to material things (e.g., Dt 8:17-18; Lk 14:15-24). Satan tempted Jesus to put material wealth and power in God’s place (Mt 4:8-9), and Jesus delivers the clearest warning against making money one’s master (6:24). In this light Jesus instructs the rich young ruler to sell everything (Mk 10:17-22). Here was a wealthy man who had allowed his possessions to possess him. Jesus’ aim was to make him recognize his bondage so he could escape from his self-made prison. The fact that he turned away from Jesus demonstrates the powerful pull of riches.<\/p>\n<p>These blunt warnings are the most striking aspect of Jesus’ teaching on wealth. But alongside his exposure of wrong attitudes he was careful to sketch in the outline of right attitudes. Those who recognize that they are God’s trustees (not owners) of their possessions, he taught, will find many valuable outlets for their riches in the Lord’s service (Lk 12:42-44). Instead of making them tight-fisted, their riches should allow them to express love in many practical ways (2 Cor 8:2). And instead of having their inward peace ruined by anxious greed, they would find the secret of serenity in an increasing sense of dependence on their heavenly Giver (Lk 12:29-31; 1 Tm 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, then, the morality of riches depends entirely on personal attitudes. And nowhere does this come out more than in the frequent comparisons Scripture draws between material and spiritual wealth. Those who make material riches their goal in life have wrong values. However wealthy they may appear, they are poverty-stricken in God’s sight (Mt 16:26; Rv 3:17). In his view, the truly rich are those whose main aim in life is to serve him as King (Mt 13:44-46). Their wealth lies in the currency of faith and good works (1 Tm 6:18; Jas 2:5)—a heavenly bank balance that no one can steal and nothing can erode: “Wherever your treasure is, there your heart and thoughts will also be” (Mt 6:21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Poor, The; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RICHES<\/h3>\n<p>Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16).<\/p>\n<p>God made all things for people to enjoy (1 Tm 6:17). That is why being rich is a matter for thanksgiving, not embarrassment. Every possession that a person can possibly own comes from the Creator (Ps 24:1), so all wealth can rightly be counted as a blessing from God. It was in this spirit that David could pray to God, “Riches and honour come of thee” (1 Chr 29:12, <span>kjv<\/span>). Even when wealth is earned by hard work, the Bible reminds its readers that both their talents and their resources are God-given. Jesus illustrates this important lesson in the parables of the 10 talents (Mt 25:14-30) and the 10 minas (Lk 19:11-26).<\/p>\n<p>Nowhere, then, does the Bible say that having possessions and becoming wealthy are wrong in themselves. There would be no point in the Ten Commandments’ ban on stealing and envy if it was wrong for God’s people to own anything at all. Jesus himself never taught that it was sinful to be rich.<\/p>\n<p>However, Jesus warned that riches could keep a person out of the kingdom: “How hard it is for rich people to get into the Kingdom of God!” (Mk 10:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Affluence, he taught, can destroy peace (Mt 6:24-34), blind people to the needs of others (Lk 16:19-31), stand between individuals and the gateway to eternal life (Mk 10:17-27), and even bring God’s judgment (Lk 12:16-21). He told his disciples not to accumulate personal wealth (Mt 6:19), and he praised those who gave up their possessions (19:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ warnings against wealth are not, in fact, directed against riches in themselves. What he condemns is the wrong attitudes many people have toward acquiring wealth, and the wrong ways in which they use it. Longing for riches, not having them, chokes the spiritual life like weeds in a field of grain (Mt 13:22). The greedy desire to have more wealth doomed the unforgiving servant (18:23-35). And the rich man’s selfishness, not his wealth, sealed his fate (Lk 16:19-26). Paul captured the main theme in these parables when he said, “The <em>love<\/em> of money is at the root of all kinds of evil” (1 Tm 6:10, <span>nlt<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest danger of all arises when riches gain the mastery in a person’s life. The whole Bible warns against this idolatrous attitude to material things (e.g., Dt 8:17-18; Lk 14:15-24). Satan tempted Jesus to put material wealth and power in God’s place (Mt 4:8-9), and Jesus delivers the clearest warning against making money one’s master (6:24). In this light Jesus instructs the rich young ruler to sell everything (Mk 10:17-22). Here was a wealthy man who had allowed his possessions to possess him. Jesus’ aim was to make him recognize his bondage so he could escape from his self-made prison. The fact that he turned away from Jesus demonstrates the powerful pull of riches.<\/p>\n<p>These blunt warnings are the most striking aspect of Jesus’ teaching on wealth. But alongside his exposure of wrong attitudes he was careful to sketch in the outline of right attitudes. Those who recognize that they are God’s trustees (not owners) of their possessions, he taught, will find many valuable outlets for their riches in the Lord’s service (Lk 12:42-44). Instead of making them tight-fisted, their riches should allow them to express love in many practical ways (2 Cor 8:2). And instead of having their inward peace ruined by anxious greed, they would find the secret of serenity in an increasing sense of dependence on their heavenly Giver (Lk 12:29-31; 1 Tm 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>According to the Bible, then, the morality of riches depends entirely on personal attitudes. And nowhere does this come out more than in the frequent comparisons Scripture draws between material and spiritual wealth. Those who make material riches their goal in life have wrong values. However wealthy they may appear, they are poverty-stricken in God’s sight (Mt 16:26; Rv 3:17). In his view, the truly rich are those whose main aim in life is to serve him as King (Mt 13:44-46). Their wealth lies in the currency of faith and good works (1 Tm 6:18; Jas 2:5)—a heavenly bank balance that no one can steal and nothing can erode: “Wherever your treasure is, there your heart and thoughts will also be” (Mt 6:21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Poor, The; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RICHES Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies. The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16). God made all ...","summary_en":"RICHES Wealth measured by money or the amount of property owned, whether land and buildings (Is 5:8-10), livestock (1 Sm 25:2-3), or slaves (8:11-18). Great riches brought great influence and power, as the Hebrew word for wealth implies. The Bible seems to speak with two voices on the subject of riches, sometimes describing material wealth as a sign of God’s blessing and approval (e.g., Gn 24:35), at other times virtually identifying the rich with the wicked (e.g., Ps 37:7, 16). God made all ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51091,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","summary_en":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51092,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","summary_en":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78717,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","summary_en":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78718,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","summary_en":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106343,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","summary_en":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106344,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","summary_en":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133969,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-23<\/strong> This section contains six pronouncements of <em>sorrow<\/em>—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","summary_en":"5:8-23 This section contains six pronouncements of sorrow—six threats of dreadful judgment (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). The sorrows identify some of the “bitter grapes” produced by the vineyard of Israel (5:1-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133970,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:8","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:8-10<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (<em>house and field<\/em>) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","summary_en":"5:8-10 What sorrow: The first threat of judgment was against oppressive greed. Properties (house and field) were being taken by illegal means. The new owners were thugs who used every avenue to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor (see 1 Kgs 21:1-29; Amos 2:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":9379,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Desert","title_en":"Desert","content_ro":"<h3>DESERT<\/h3>\n\n<p>Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated area where wild beasts roam (Dt 32:10; Jb 24:5). The wilderness is also sometimes a place of pasturage (Ex 3:1; Ps 65:12; Jer 23:10; Jl 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often refers to wilderness regions (e.g., Gn 16:7; 21:20; 1 Sm 17:28; Mt 3:1; Mk 1:13; Lk 15:4). “Wilderness” is usually a place with no settled population (Nm 14:33; Dt 32:10; Jb 38:26; Prv 21:19; Jer 9:2) but is the dwelling place of wildlife: the vulture (Ps 102:6), wild asses (Jb 24:5), jackals (Mal 1:3), and ostriches (Lam 4:3). The term is also used figuratively (Hos 2:3; Jer 2:31).<\/p>\n<p>Another Hebrew term for desert, from a root meaning “to be arid,” refers to an infertile, desolate, bare steppe (Jb 24:5; Is 33:9; Jer 51:43). The plural form of that word describes topographical features of the desert plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63; Dt 34:1) and of Jericho (Jos 4:13; 5:10; 2 Kgs 25:5). With the definite article, that word (the Arabah) is the plain of the Jordan Valley and of the environs of the Dead Sea. The geography of that region contains sharp contrasts; the Jordan Valley, dense with a junglelike forest sheltering wild beasts (including lions in biblical times), gives way to the steppe lands of the Dead Sea area, which have always been desert.<\/p>\n<p>Two other Hebrew terms, meaning “waste” and “ruin,” refer to districts or settlements once inhabited but later devastated (Is 1:7; 5:9; 6:11; Jer 42:18; Ez 35:7). They are also used more generally for any desolate or waste place (Lv 26:31, 33; Jb 3:14; Pss 9:6; 109:10; Is 5:17; 44:26; 51:3; 52:9; Jer 7:34; Ez 5:14). One of them is also used once for the wilderness of the exodus (Is 48:21). Another word meaning “waste” (Ps 78:40; Is 43:19-20), when prefixed with the definite article, is a proper name for Jeshimon, a tract of land west of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:20; 1 Sm 23:24; 26:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the noun for “wilderness” and the adjective “desert” (Mt 3:1; 24:26; Lk 5:16; Jn 6:31; Acts 8:26) come from the same Greek root.<\/p>\n<p>The whole of biblical history has been interpreted as having a desert or wilderness motif. It can be seen in the realm of disobedient human experience outside the Garden of Eden; in the wandering of Israel during the exodus; in the struggle between pure faith in the desert and soft, idolatrous city life. The desert is viewed as a realm of demons and death (Dt 32:17; Is 34:13-14); its demonic wildness resembles the primeval chaos of the Creation (Gn 1:2; Jb 26:7). Several moving passages of Scripture deal with renewal of life in a desert valley (e.g., Ez 37), or with transformation of arid land into a productive garden (Is 41:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>The desert is also a place where God is close to his people (Dt 32:10-12), both watching over them and testing their obedience (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14-15). Finally, the desert is a place of refuge, cleansing, and consecration. In the Gospels the desert theme of the exodus recurs in the 40 days and nights in which Jesus was tempted in the wilderness (Mk 1:13; cf. Ps 91). The desert fathers of the early church and the hermits of the Middle Ages emulated the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist (1 Kgs 19:4-8; Mt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Negeb, Negev; Palestine; Wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DESERT<\/h3>\n\n<p>Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated area where wild beasts roam (Dt 32:10; Jb 24:5). The wilderness is also sometimes a place of pasturage (Ex 3:1; Ps 65:12; Jer 23:10; Jl 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often refers to wilderness regions (e.g., Gn 16:7; 21:20; 1 Sm 17:28; Mt 3:1; Mk 1:13; Lk 15:4). “Wilderness” is usually a place with no settled population (Nm 14:33; Dt 32:10; Jb 38:26; Prv 21:19; Jer 9:2) but is the dwelling place of wildlife: the vulture (Ps 102:6), wild asses (Jb 24:5), jackals (Mal 1:3), and ostriches (Lam 4:3). The term is also used figuratively (Hos 2:3; Jer 2:31).<\/p>\n<p>Another Hebrew term for desert, from a root meaning “to be arid,” refers to an infertile, desolate, bare steppe (Jb 24:5; Is 33:9; Jer 51:43). The plural form of that word describes topographical features of the desert plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63; Dt 34:1) and of Jericho (Jos 4:13; 5:10; 2 Kgs 25:5). With the definite article, that word (the Arabah) is the plain of the Jordan Valley and of the environs of the Dead Sea. The geography of that region contains sharp contrasts; the Jordan Valley, dense with a junglelike forest sheltering wild beasts (including lions in biblical times), gives way to the steppe lands of the Dead Sea area, which have always been desert.<\/p>\n<p>Two other Hebrew terms, meaning “waste” and “ruin,” refer to districts or settlements once inhabited but later devastated (Is 1:7; 5:9; 6:11; Jer 42:18; Ez 35:7). They are also used more generally for any desolate or waste place (Lv 26:31, 33; Jb 3:14; Pss 9:6; 109:10; Is 5:17; 44:26; 51:3; 52:9; Jer 7:34; Ez 5:14). One of them is also used once for the wilderness of the exodus (Is 48:21). Another word meaning “waste” (Ps 78:40; Is 43:19-20), when prefixed with the definite article, is a proper name for Jeshimon, a tract of land west of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:20; 1 Sm 23:24; 26:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the noun for “wilderness” and the adjective “desert” (Mt 3:1; 24:26; Lk 5:16; Jn 6:31; Acts 8:26) come from the same Greek root.<\/p>\n<p>The whole of biblical history has been interpreted as having a desert or wilderness motif. It can be seen in the realm of disobedient human experience outside the Garden of Eden; in the wandering of Israel during the exodus; in the struggle between pure faith in the desert and soft, idolatrous city life. The desert is viewed as a realm of demons and death (Dt 32:17; Is 34:13-14); its demonic wildness resembles the primeval chaos of the Creation (Gn 1:2; Jb 26:7). Several moving passages of Scripture deal with renewal of life in a desert valley (e.g., Ez 37), or with transformation of arid land into a productive garden (Is 41:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>The desert is also a place where God is close to his people (Dt 32:10-12), both watching over them and testing their obedience (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14-15). Finally, the desert is a place of refuge, cleansing, and consecration. In the Gospels the desert theme of the exodus recurs in the 40 days and nights in which Jesus was tempted in the wilderness (Mk 1:13; cf. Ps 91). The desert fathers of the early church and the hermits of the Middle Ages emulated the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist (1 Kgs 19:4-8; Mt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Negeb, Negev; Palestine; Wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DESERT Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated...","summary_en":"DESERT Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":17737,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38303,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Weights and Measures","title_en":"Weights and Measures","content_ro":"<h3>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While this was a convenient system, it also suffered from a lack of standardization. Some arms were longer than others, and some donkeys could carry more than others. The history of weights and measures, therefore, becomes the story of seeking standards. This was not achieved in the OT but began to take place under Greek and Roman influences in NT times.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the measures that were used are frequently attested to in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Canaanite literature as well. The Israelites did not have their own unique set of measurements. Yet while the terms are shared, it is not unusual to find a particular term having one value in Israel and a noticeably different value in one of the other cultures.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of the NT, other variables were added. The Israelites of this period were still using many of the measures that had been used and developed throughout the OT period. But added to that were the Greek and Roman systems of measurement. Sometimes these terms were adopted wholesale, while at other times Hebrew terms were adapted to Greco-Roman standards. On still other occasions, the Roman terms were apparently used when dealing with the government, whereas Hebrew terms were still used in everyday practice.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the kinds of measurement, the base unit (i.e., the one that all of the others are fractions or multiples of) is the one about which there is the most uncertainty. So the cubit (length), the shekel (weight), the homer (dry volume), and the bath (liquid volume) are all to some degree uncertain. This makes all of the other measures based on them equally uncertain.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WeightMeasures\">Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>The terms used for weights have benefited most from archaeological discoveries. Excavations provide stone weights that are occasionally inscribed with the unit they represent. When the stones are weighed, they frequently give a range of weights that have only a general consistency. However, comparing this data with that provided by the text has given the basis for fairly accurate determinations. The relative scale in any given location is more important than absolute values.<\/p>\n\n<p>There was standardization of weight measures, but precision was difficult to attain. The Israelite system is similar to that used by the Mesopotamians and the Canaanites. For most of the OT period, the weights system provided the monetary system. Minted coinage was the invention of the Persians. Up until that time, silver or gold or any other trading commodity had to be weighed out so that bartering or purchasing could take place. This made the weights system the core of the ancient economy. It also explains why the Scriptures speak so seriously against the use of false weights (Lv 19:36; Dt 25:13; Prv 16:11; 20:10, 23; Mi 6:11; Hos 12:7; Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>Stone weights were used on a set of balances for conducting business in the ancient marketplace. Scales or balances are mentioned half a dozen times in the OT, but none of those are in actual economic contexts (Jb 6:2; 31:6; Ps 62:9; Is 40:12; Ez 5:1; Dn 5:27). The scales used were generally of the beam-balance type with dishes on each end.<\/p>\n<h5>Talent<\/h5>\n<p>According to Exodus 38:25-26 the talent must have been equal to 3,000 shekels. (A hundred talents would then have been equal to 300,000 shekels, and if that is added to the 1,175 shekels in verse 25, the total is 301,775, or half a shekel for each of the 603,550 men—as verse 26 states.) Excavated talents weigh from about 65 to 80 pounds (29.5 to 36.3 kilograms). In the OT the talent is used only for precious metals, usually silver or gold. According to 1 Kings 10:14, the annual tribute income of Solomon’s kingdom was 666 talents, which apparently was considered quite extravagant. David bequeathed 100,000 talents of gold and 1,000,000 talents of silver to Solomon for the building of the temple (1 Chr 22:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Mina<\/h5>\n<p>In the Canaanite material from Ugarit the mina equals 50 shekels, while in Babylon the mina equals 60 shekels. In Ezekiel 45:12, the mina is set at 60 shekels, but it is unclear whether this represents a change from previous standards.<\/p>\n<h5>Shekel<\/h5>\n<p>The shekel was the basic unit of weight. Besides the regular shekel, there was a “royal” shekel (2 Sm 14:26). Calculating by weights that have been excavated and found labeled as “beka” (one-half shekel), the shekel has been estimated to be about .4 ounce (11.4 grams).<\/p>\n<p>The shekel is used in Scripture almost exclusively in contexts dealing with monetary value. Whether silver, gold, barley, or flour, the shekel valuation assigns the commodity a relative value in the economy. Exceptions to this are Goliath’s armor and spear (1 Sm 17:5-7), which are described in terms of their shekel weight.<\/p>\n<h5>Pim<\/h5>\n<p>The only reference to this unit is in 1 Samuel 13:21, where it is the price charged to the Israelites by the Philistines for sharpening a plowshare. Excavated weights range from .25 to .3 ounce (7.1 to 8.5 grams), suggesting that the pim was two-thirds of a shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Beka<\/h5>\n<p>Seven stones inscribed with this label range in weight from .2 to .23 ounce (5.7 to 6.5 grams). In Exodus 38:26 it is the amount levied on each individual for the census tax. There it is the equivalent of one-half shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Gerah<\/h5>\n<p>Equal to one-twentieth of a shekel, or .02 ounce (.6 gram). The term is used five times (Ex 30:13; Lv 27:25; Nm 3:47; 18:16; Ez 45:12) and on each occasion is used to give a valuation to the shekel. Its use is strictly monetary in these contexts.<\/p>\n<h5>Litra<\/h5>\n<p>The NT uses the same weights that have already been identified in the OT usage, particularly the shekel, mina, and talent. There is one additional unit used: the litra, which is used in John 12:3 and 19:39 with regard to spices. In Greek literature one litra is approximately 12 ounces (327 grams).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Measurements of length and depth generally were derived from a part of the body used to make the measurement. The basic unit was the cubit, and most others were related to it. Precise measurements of geographic distance are lacking in the OT and was most frequently stated in terms of the number of days it would take to arrive at a destination. A single day’s journey was mostly likely 20 to 25 miles (32.2 to 40.2 kilometers). A “pace” was equal to a “step”—about a yard (2 Sm 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>The length from the tip of the forefinger to the elbow. There are both long and short cubits, which are used not only in Israel but in Mesopotamia and Egypt as well. Ezekiel 40:5 identifies the long cubit as being the equivalent of a cubit plus a handbreadth (about 20 to 21 inches, or 50.8 to 53.3 centimeters). The inscription found inside the Siloam tunnel built by Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the tunnel is 1,200 cubits long. The actual length of the tunnel was determined to be 1,749 feet (533.1 meters). This would yield a cubit of 17.49 inches (44.4 centimeters). All things considered, 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters) is a good estimation of the length of the cubit in Israel. This would set the long cubit at approximately 20.5 inches (52.1 centimeters). The cubit was most frequently used to give the dimensions of buildings or objects (e.g., curtains, pillars, pieces of furniture, etc.). The largest structure measured in cubits was the ark that Noah built, which was 300 cubits long (Gn 6:15).<\/p>\n<h5>Span<\/h5>\n<p>The distance measured by the stretch of the hand from fingertip to fingertip, equal to one-half a cubit, or eight and three-quarters inches (22.2 centimeters). It is used only seven times in the OT, and four of those are to describe the dimensions of the high priest’s breastplate (Ex 28:15-16; 39:8-9).<\/p>\n<h5>Handbreadth<\/h5>\n<p>The width of the hand at the base, equal to one-sixth of a cubit, one-third of a span, or just under three inches (7.6 centimeters). The term is used only five times and gives the width of the rim around the table of showbread (Ex 25:25) and Solomon’s molten sea (1 Kgs 7:26).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the NT some of the units of length and depth represent Greco-Roman standards, while others are those used in the OT. Like the OT, the NT frequently uses imprecise designations for distance, such as a stone’s throw or a day’s journey. There are, however, a few occurrences of precise terms borrowed from Roman culture.<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>For the Romans, the cubit was set at one and a half times their standard foot of 11.66 inches, equaling 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters), just as the OT cubit.<\/p>\n<h5>Fathom<\/h5>\n<p>The distance between the fingertips of the left and right hand when the arms were outstretched. It is used only in Acts 27:28 and is considered to be about six feet (1.8 meters).<\/p>\n<h5>Furlong\/Stadium<\/h5>\n<p>The length of the ancient Greek racecourse, equal to one-eighth of a Roman mile, or a little over 200 yards (182.9 meters). It is usually used to give approximate distance, but in Revelation 21:16 it is used to give the dimensions of the New Jerusalem and is measured with a measuring rod.<\/p>\n<h5>Mile<\/h5>\n<p>The only occurrence of this term, Matthew 5:41, has reference to the Roman mile of 1,620 yards, about nine-tenths of a modern mile (1.4 kilometers).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheOldTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Amounts of dry goods were oriented toward practical matters such as typical donkey loads, how much seed could be sown in a day, or how much seed would be needed to sow a certain size plot. As with the other types of measures, these then became standardized.<\/p>\n<h5>Cor\/Homer<\/h5>\n<p>The most common dry commodity measure and the equivalent of one donkey load. Estimates of its standard size vary greatly, ranging from 3.8 bushels to 7.5 bushels (133.9 to 264.3 liters). Other than the seven occurrences in Ezekiel 45:11-14, the term occurs only four times in the OT. Three of these contexts feature seed or barley (Lv 27:16; Is 5:10; Hos 3:2), while the fourth is in the context of Israelites gathering quail in the wilderness. A cor is used nine times and occurs with a variety of commodities, including oil, flour, wheat, and barley, in multiples all the way up to 20,000 (1 Kgs 5:11).<\/p>\n<h5>Lethek<\/h5>\n<p>Unit occurring only in Hosea 3:2. The early versions of the Bible identified it as one-half of a cor, or homer.<\/p>\n<h5>Ephah<\/h5>\n<p>This is equal to one-tenth of a homer (Ez 45:11), or one-half of a bushel (17.6 liters). The term occurs dozens of times with all sorts of agricultural products. It seems to have been the unit most used in trading and selling. According to Zechariah 5:6-10, the ephah refers to a container that would hold an ephah of produce, much like the modern-day bushel basket.<\/p>\n<h5>Seah<\/h5>\n<p>A fraction of the homer, which has a very wide range. The term measures flour, seed, barley, and grain, and is roughly one-third of an ephah. A bushel was about five seahs (1 Sm 25:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<h5>Omer\/Issaron<\/h5>\n<p>The omer occurs only in the account of the collecting of manna by the Israelites (Ex 16:22). It represents a day’s ration of manna and is identified as one-tenth of an ephah (Ex 16:36). The issaron is a term that means a tenth. Its 25 occurrences are all in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers (mostly in Nm 28–29); it refers only to measures of fine flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Cab, Kab<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25. The estimate given by Josephus, one-eighteenth of an ephah (or about one-half of an omer), is usually accepted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheNewTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following dry measures are used in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Choinix<\/h5>\n<p>Occurring only in Revelation 6:6 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the choinix is a little more than a quart (1.1 liters). In Greek literature it was considered the amount of one man’s daily allowance of corn.<\/p>\n<h5>Modius<\/h5>\n<p>This is the “bushel” under which one’s lamp should not be hid (Mt 5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 11:33). It is actually equal to about a peck, 7.68 dry quarts (8.5 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Saton<\/h5>\n<p>This is the equivalent of the OT seah and can therefore also be approximated at about a peck. It is used only twice in the NT in parallel passages of the parable of the leaven, which is like the kingdom of God (Mt 13:33; Lk 13:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Three basic measures were used for liquids in the OT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>The base unit for the measurement of liquids. The biblical data (Ez 45:11-14) sets it as the liquid equivalent to the dry measure, the ephah. It is one-tenth of a homer. Archaeology has also been able to provide some data for this determination. Jars inscribed as “bath of the king” were found at Lachish and Tell en-Nasbeh, and jars marked “bath” were found at Tell Beit Mirsim. The jars are not complete, so their capacity must be calculated based on a reconstruction. Using this data, the bath was approximately 5.5 gallons (20.8 liters). This estimate would provide acceptable results when factored into the information given in 1 Kings 7:23-26, where the “molten sea” of Solomon’s temple is described as being 30 cubits in circumference, 10 cubits in diameter, 5 cubits deep, and capable of holding 2,000 baths of water.<\/p>\n<h5>Hin<\/h5>\n<p>One-sixth of a hin of water was considered a person’s minimum daily requirement (Ez 4:11). A hin is equal to one-sixth of a bath, approximately one gallon (3.8 liters). It is used for a measure of oil, wine, and water, but no context ever mentions more than one hin. Rather, fractions of a hin are used. Occurrences are limited to Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Ezekiel and are therefore most commonly attested in the context of sacrificial libations.<\/p>\n<h5>Log<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in Leviticus 14:10-24 and equals one-twelfth of a hin, so about .3 quart or .3 liter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following liquid measures occur in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only once (Lk 16:6) and is the same as the OT bath.<\/p>\n<h5>Metretes<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only in John 2:6, where it describes the containers in which water was turned to wine. Josephus identifies it as equivalent to a Hebrew bath, but in Greek usage it was the equivalent of about ten gallons (37.9 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Sextarius\/Xestes<\/h5>\n<p>A measure of capacity equal to about one and one-sixth pints (552 milliliters). In Mark 7:4 the word is translated “pitcher” (<span>nlt<\/span>) or “pot” (<span>kjv<\/span>, see mg).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While this was a convenient system, it also suffered from a lack of standardization. Some arms were longer than others, and some donkeys could carry more than others. The history of weights and measures, therefore, becomes the story of seeking standards. This was not achieved in the OT but began to take place under Greek and Roman influences in NT times.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the measures that were used are frequently attested to in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Canaanite literature as well. The Israelites did not have their own unique set of measurements. Yet while the terms are shared, it is not unusual to find a particular term having one value in Israel and a noticeably different value in one of the other cultures.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of the NT, other variables were added. The Israelites of this period were still using many of the measures that had been used and developed throughout the OT period. But added to that were the Greek and Roman systems of measurement. Sometimes these terms were adopted wholesale, while at other times Hebrew terms were adapted to Greco-Roman standards. On still other occasions, the Roman terms were apparently used when dealing with the government, whereas Hebrew terms were still used in everyday practice.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the kinds of measurement, the base unit (i.e., the one that all of the others are fractions or multiples of) is the one about which there is the most uncertainty. So the cubit (length), the shekel (weight), the homer (dry volume), and the bath (liquid volume) are all to some degree uncertain. This makes all of the other measures based on them equally uncertain.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WeightMeasures\">Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>The terms used for weights have benefited most from archaeological discoveries. Excavations provide stone weights that are occasionally inscribed with the unit they represent. When the stones are weighed, they frequently give a range of weights that have only a general consistency. However, comparing this data with that provided by the text has given the basis for fairly accurate determinations. The relative scale in any given location is more important than absolute values.<\/p>\n\n<p>There was standardization of weight measures, but precision was difficult to attain. The Israelite system is similar to that used by the Mesopotamians and the Canaanites. For most of the OT period, the weights system provided the monetary system. Minted coinage was the invention of the Persians. Up until that time, silver or gold or any other trading commodity had to be weighed out so that bartering or purchasing could take place. This made the weights system the core of the ancient economy. It also explains why the Scriptures speak so seriously against the use of false weights (Lv 19:36; Dt 25:13; Prv 16:11; 20:10, 23; Mi 6:11; Hos 12:7; Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>Stone weights were used on a set of balances for conducting business in the ancient marketplace. Scales or balances are mentioned half a dozen times in the OT, but none of those are in actual economic contexts (Jb 6:2; 31:6; Ps 62:9; Is 40:12; Ez 5:1; Dn 5:27). The scales used were generally of the beam-balance type with dishes on each end.<\/p>\n<h5>Talent<\/h5>\n<p>According to Exodus 38:25-26 the talent must have been equal to 3,000 shekels. (A hundred talents would then have been equal to 300,000 shekels, and if that is added to the 1,175 shekels in verse 25, the total is 301,775, or half a shekel for each of the 603,550 men—as verse 26 states.) Excavated talents weigh from about 65 to 80 pounds (29.5 to 36.3 kilograms). In the OT the talent is used only for precious metals, usually silver or gold. According to 1 Kings 10:14, the annual tribute income of Solomon’s kingdom was 666 talents, which apparently was considered quite extravagant. David bequeathed 100,000 talents of gold and 1,000,000 talents of silver to Solomon for the building of the temple (1 Chr 22:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Mina<\/h5>\n<p>In the Canaanite material from Ugarit the mina equals 50 shekels, while in Babylon the mina equals 60 shekels. In Ezekiel 45:12, the mina is set at 60 shekels, but it is unclear whether this represents a change from previous standards.<\/p>\n<h5>Shekel<\/h5>\n<p>The shekel was the basic unit of weight. Besides the regular shekel, there was a “royal” shekel (2 Sm 14:26). Calculating by weights that have been excavated and found labeled as “beka” (one-half shekel), the shekel has been estimated to be about .4 ounce (11.4 grams).<\/p>\n<p>The shekel is used in Scripture almost exclusively in contexts dealing with monetary value. Whether silver, gold, barley, or flour, the shekel valuation assigns the commodity a relative value in the economy. Exceptions to this are Goliath’s armor and spear (1 Sm 17:5-7), which are described in terms of their shekel weight.<\/p>\n<h5>Pim<\/h5>\n<p>The only reference to this unit is in 1 Samuel 13:21, where it is the price charged to the Israelites by the Philistines for sharpening a plowshare. Excavated weights range from .25 to .3 ounce (7.1 to 8.5 grams), suggesting that the pim was two-thirds of a shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Beka<\/h5>\n<p>Seven stones inscribed with this label range in weight from .2 to .23 ounce (5.7 to 6.5 grams). In Exodus 38:26 it is the amount levied on each individual for the census tax. There it is the equivalent of one-half shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Gerah<\/h5>\n<p>Equal to one-twentieth of a shekel, or .02 ounce (.6 gram). The term is used five times (Ex 30:13; Lv 27:25; Nm 3:47; 18:16; Ez 45:12) and on each occasion is used to give a valuation to the shekel. Its use is strictly monetary in these contexts.<\/p>\n<h5>Litra<\/h5>\n<p>The NT uses the same weights that have already been identified in the OT usage, particularly the shekel, mina, and talent. There is one additional unit used: the litra, which is used in John 12:3 and 19:39 with regard to spices. In Greek literature one litra is approximately 12 ounces (327 grams).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Measurements of length and depth generally were derived from a part of the body used to make the measurement. The basic unit was the cubit, and most others were related to it. Precise measurements of geographic distance are lacking in the OT and was most frequently stated in terms of the number of days it would take to arrive at a destination. A single day’s journey was mostly likely 20 to 25 miles (32.2 to 40.2 kilometers). A “pace” was equal to a “step”—about a yard (2 Sm 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>The length from the tip of the forefinger to the elbow. There are both long and short cubits, which are used not only in Israel but in Mesopotamia and Egypt as well. Ezekiel 40:5 identifies the long cubit as being the equivalent of a cubit plus a handbreadth (about 20 to 21 inches, or 50.8 to 53.3 centimeters). The inscription found inside the Siloam tunnel built by Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the tunnel is 1,200 cubits long. The actual length of the tunnel was determined to be 1,749 feet (533.1 meters). This would yield a cubit of 17.49 inches (44.4 centimeters). All things considered, 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters) is a good estimation of the length of the cubit in Israel. This would set the long cubit at approximately 20.5 inches (52.1 centimeters). The cubit was most frequently used to give the dimensions of buildings or objects (e.g., curtains, pillars, pieces of furniture, etc.). The largest structure measured in cubits was the ark that Noah built, which was 300 cubits long (Gn 6:15).<\/p>\n<h5>Span<\/h5>\n<p>The distance measured by the stretch of the hand from fingertip to fingertip, equal to one-half a cubit, or eight and three-quarters inches (22.2 centimeters). It is used only seven times in the OT, and four of those are to describe the dimensions of the high priest’s breastplate (Ex 28:15-16; 39:8-9).<\/p>\n<h5>Handbreadth<\/h5>\n<p>The width of the hand at the base, equal to one-sixth of a cubit, one-third of a span, or just under three inches (7.6 centimeters). The term is used only five times and gives the width of the rim around the table of showbread (Ex 25:25) and Solomon’s molten sea (1 Kgs 7:26).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the NT some of the units of length and depth represent Greco-Roman standards, while others are those used in the OT. Like the OT, the NT frequently uses imprecise designations for distance, such as a stone’s throw or a day’s journey. There are, however, a few occurrences of precise terms borrowed from Roman culture.<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>For the Romans, the cubit was set at one and a half times their standard foot of 11.66 inches, equaling 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters), just as the OT cubit.<\/p>\n<h5>Fathom<\/h5>\n<p>The distance between the fingertips of the left and right hand when the arms were outstretched. It is used only in Acts 27:28 and is considered to be about six feet (1.8 meters).<\/p>\n<h5>Furlong\/Stadium<\/h5>\n<p>The length of the ancient Greek racecourse, equal to one-eighth of a Roman mile, or a little over 200 yards (182.9 meters). It is usually used to give approximate distance, but in Revelation 21:16 it is used to give the dimensions of the New Jerusalem and is measured with a measuring rod.<\/p>\n<h5>Mile<\/h5>\n<p>The only occurrence of this term, Matthew 5:41, has reference to the Roman mile of 1,620 yards, about nine-tenths of a modern mile (1.4 kilometers).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheOldTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Amounts of dry goods were oriented toward practical matters such as typical donkey loads, how much seed could be sown in a day, or how much seed would be needed to sow a certain size plot. As with the other types of measures, these then became standardized.<\/p>\n<h5>Cor\/Homer<\/h5>\n<p>The most common dry commodity measure and the equivalent of one donkey load. Estimates of its standard size vary greatly, ranging from 3.8 bushels to 7.5 bushels (133.9 to 264.3 liters). Other than the seven occurrences in Ezekiel 45:11-14, the term occurs only four times in the OT. Three of these contexts feature seed or barley (Lv 27:16; Is 5:10; Hos 3:2), while the fourth is in the context of Israelites gathering quail in the wilderness. A cor is used nine times and occurs with a variety of commodities, including oil, flour, wheat, and barley, in multiples all the way up to 20,000 (1 Kgs 5:11).<\/p>\n<h5>Lethek<\/h5>\n<p>Unit occurring only in Hosea 3:2. The early versions of the Bible identified it as one-half of a cor, or homer.<\/p>\n<h5>Ephah<\/h5>\n<p>This is equal to one-tenth of a homer (Ez 45:11), or one-half of a bushel (17.6 liters). The term occurs dozens of times with all sorts of agricultural products. It seems to have been the unit most used in trading and selling. According to Zechariah 5:6-10, the ephah refers to a container that would hold an ephah of produce, much like the modern-day bushel basket.<\/p>\n<h5>Seah<\/h5>\n<p>A fraction of the homer, which has a very wide range. The term measures flour, seed, barley, and grain, and is roughly one-third of an ephah. A bushel was about five seahs (1 Sm 25:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<h5>Omer\/Issaron<\/h5>\n<p>The omer occurs only in the account of the collecting of manna by the Israelites (Ex 16:22). It represents a day’s ration of manna and is identified as one-tenth of an ephah (Ex 16:36). The issaron is a term that means a tenth. Its 25 occurrences are all in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers (mostly in Nm 28–29); it refers only to measures of fine flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Cab, Kab<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25. The estimate given by Josephus, one-eighteenth of an ephah (or about one-half of an omer), is usually accepted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheNewTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following dry measures are used in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Choinix<\/h5>\n<p>Occurring only in Revelation 6:6 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the choinix is a little more than a quart (1.1 liters). In Greek literature it was considered the amount of one man’s daily allowance of corn.<\/p>\n<h5>Modius<\/h5>\n<p>This is the “bushel” under which one’s lamp should not be hid (Mt 5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 11:33). It is actually equal to about a peck, 7.68 dry quarts (8.5 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Saton<\/h5>\n<p>This is the equivalent of the OT seah and can therefore also be approximated at about a peck. It is used only twice in the NT in parallel passages of the parable of the leaven, which is like the kingdom of God (Mt 13:33; Lk 13:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Three basic measures were used for liquids in the OT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>The base unit for the measurement of liquids. The biblical data (Ez 45:11-14) sets it as the liquid equivalent to the dry measure, the ephah. It is one-tenth of a homer. Archaeology has also been able to provide some data for this determination. Jars inscribed as “bath of the king” were found at Lachish and Tell en-Nasbeh, and jars marked “bath” were found at Tell Beit Mirsim. The jars are not complete, so their capacity must be calculated based on a reconstruction. Using this data, the bath was approximately 5.5 gallons (20.8 liters). This estimate would provide acceptable results when factored into the information given in 1 Kings 7:23-26, where the “molten sea” of Solomon’s temple is described as being 30 cubits in circumference, 10 cubits in diameter, 5 cubits deep, and capable of holding 2,000 baths of water.<\/p>\n<h5>Hin<\/h5>\n<p>One-sixth of a hin of water was considered a person’s minimum daily requirement (Ez 4:11). A hin is equal to one-sixth of a bath, approximately one gallon (3.8 liters). It is used for a measure of oil, wine, and water, but no context ever mentions more than one hin. Rather, fractions of a hin are used. Occurrences are limited to Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Ezekiel and are therefore most commonly attested in the context of sacrificial libations.<\/p>\n<h5>Log<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in Leviticus 14:10-24 and equals one-twelfth of a hin, so about .3 quart or .3 liter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following liquid measures occur in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only once (Lk 16:6) and is the same as the OT bath.<\/p>\n<h5>Metretes<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only in John 2:6, where it describes the containers in which water was turned to wine. Josephus identifies it as equivalent to a Hebrew bath, but in Greek usage it was the equivalent of about ten gallons (37.9 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Sextarius\/Xestes<\/h5>\n<p>A measure of capacity equal to about one and one-sixth pints (552 milliliters). In Mark 7:4 the word is translated “pitcher” (<span>nlt<\/span>) or “pot” (<span>kjv<\/span>, see mg).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Preview • Introduction • Weight Measures • Linear Measures in the Old Testament • Linear Measures in the New Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament • Liquid Measures in the Old Testament • Liquid Measures in the New Testament Introduction Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While thi...","summary_en":"WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Preview • Introduction • Weight Measures • Linear Measures in the Old Testament • Linear Measures in the New Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament • Liquid Measures in the Old Testament • Liquid Measures in the New Testament Introduction Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While thi...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51093,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","summary_en":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78719,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","summary_en":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106345,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","summary_en":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133971,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","summary_en":"5:10 As with drought (5:5-6), the reduction of crops was at times a divine judgment (see Hag 1:6, 9; 2:16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":36380,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Strong Drink","title_en":"Strong Drink","content_ro":"<h3>STRONG DRINK<\/h3>\n<p>Any intoxicating liquor. It was forbidden to Levites who were entering the tent of meeting (Lv 10:9); to those taking the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:3; Jgs 13:4-14); to kings and rulers (Prv 31:4); and to John the Baptist (Lk 1:15). The writer of Proverbs 20:1 suggests that the wise man does not become intoxicated by it. Isaiah pronounces woe on those addicted to it (Is 5:11, 22). Strong drink was used as a libation in the Levitical sacrifice (Nm 28:7) and was permitted in the menu of the feast at the time of tithing (Dt 14:26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wine.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>STRONG DRINK<\/h3>\n<p>Any intoxicating liquor. It was forbidden to Levites who were entering the tent of meeting (Lv 10:9); to those taking the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:3; Jgs 13:4-14); to kings and rulers (Prv 31:4); and to John the Baptist (Lk 1:15). The writer of Proverbs 20:1 suggests that the wise man does not become intoxicated by it. Isaiah pronounces woe on those addicted to it (Is 5:11, 22). Strong drink was used as a libation in the Levitical sacrifice (Nm 28:7) and was permitted in the menu of the feast at the time of tithing (Dt 14:26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wine.<\/p>","summary_ro":"STRONG DRINK Any intoxicating liquor. It was forbidden to Levites who were entering the tent of meeting (Lv 10:9); to those taking the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:3; Jgs 13:4-14); to kings and rulers (Prv 31:4); and to John the Baptist (Lk 1:15). The writer of Proverbs 20:1 suggests that the wise man does not become intoxicated by it. Isaiah pronounces woe on those addicted to it (Is 5:11, 22). Strong drink was used as a libation in the Levitical sacrifice (Nm 28:7) and was permitted in the menu of th...","summary_en":"STRONG DRINK Any intoxicating liquor. It was forbidden to Levites who were entering the tent of meeting (Lv 10:9); to those taking the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:3; Jgs 13:4-14); to kings and rulers (Prv 31:4); and to John the Baptist (Lk 1:15). The writer of Proverbs 20:1 suggests that the wise man does not become intoxicated by it. Isaiah pronounces woe on those addicted to it (Is 5:11, 22). Strong drink was used as a libation in the Levitical sacrifice (Nm 28:7) and was permitted in the menu of th...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51094,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","summary_en":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78720,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","summary_en":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106346,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","summary_en":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133972,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:11","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:11-17<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","summary_en":"5:11-17 What sorrow: The second threat of judgment concerned indulgent lifestyles. The language throughout this section indicates a life of corruption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":26536,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26667,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36684,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tabret*","title_en":"Tabret*","content_ro":"<h3>TABRET*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of tambourine in Genesis 31:27 and 1 Samuel 10:5, and timbrel in 1 Samuel 18:6, Job 17:6, Isaiah 5:12, 24:8, 30:32, and Jeremiah 31:4. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Toph).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABRET*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of tambourine in Genesis 31:27 and 1 Samuel 10:5, and timbrel in 1 Samuel 18:6, Job 17:6, Isaiah 5:12, 24:8, 30:32, and Jeremiah 31:4. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Toph).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABRET* KJV rendering of tambourine in Genesis 31:27 and 1 Samuel 10:5, and timbrel in 1 Samuel 18:6, Job 17:6, Isaiah 5:12, 24:8, 30:32, and Jeremiah 31:4. See Musical Instruments (Toph).","summary_en":"TABRET* KJV rendering of tambourine in Genesis 31:27 and 1 Samuel 10:5, and timbrel in 1 Samuel 18:6, Job 17:6, Isaiah 5:12, 24:8, 30:32, and Jeremiah 31:4. See Musical Instruments (Toph).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38020,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Viol*","title_en":"Viol*","content_ro":"<h3>VIOL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of harp in Isaiah 5:12; 14:11; Amos 5:23; and 6:5. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Nebel).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VIOL*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of harp in Isaiah 5:12; 14:11; Amos 5:23; and 6:5. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Nebel).<\/p>","summary_ro":"VIOL* KJV rendering of harp in Isaiah 5:12; 14:11; Amos 5:23; and 6:5. See Musical Instruments (Nebel).","summary_en":"VIOL* KJV rendering of harp in Isaiah 5:12; 14:11; Amos 5:23; and 6:5. See Musical Instruments (Nebel).","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51095,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","summary_en":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78721,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","summary_en":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106347,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","summary_en":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133973,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:12","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:12<\/strong> Self-indulgent and contented, these people <em>never think about the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","summary_en":"5:12 Self-indulgent and contented, these people never think about the Lord. They were too busy enjoying their drunken parties to reflect on why things went bad in the first place, such as why God sent no rain, or why they lost a battle.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":15872,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hebrew Language","title_en":"Hebrew Language","content_ro":"<h3>HEBREW LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>• Character<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<p>• Style<\/p>\n<p>• Legacy<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>In the Middle Ages a common view was that Hebrew was the primitive language of humankind. Even in colonial America, Hebrew was still referred to as “the mother of all languages.” Linguistic scholarship has now made this theory untenable.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is actually one of several Canaanite dialects that included Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite. Other Canaanite dialects (for example, Ammonite) existed but have left insufficient inscriptions for scholarly investigation. Such dialects were already present in the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Until about 1974, the oldest witnesses to Canaanite language were found in the Ugarit and Amarna records dating from the 14th and 15th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. A few Canaanite words and expressions appeared in earlier Egyptian records, but the origin of Canaanite has been uncertain. Between 1974 and 1976, however, nearly 17,000 tablets were dug up at Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) in northern Syria, written in a previously unknown Semitic dialect. Because they possibly date back to 2400 <span>BC<\/span> (perhaps even earlier), many scholars think that language may be the “Old Canaanite” that gave rise to Hebrew. By 1977, when another 1,000 tablets were unearthed, only about 100 inscriptions from Ebla had been reported on. Languages change over a long period of time. For example, the English used in the time of Alfred the Great (ninth century <span>AD<\/span>) seems almost like a foreign language to contemporary English speakers. Although Hebrew was no exception to the general principle, like other Semitic languages it remained remarkably stable over many centuries. Poems such as the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5) tended to preserve the language’s oldest form. Changes that took place later in the long history of the language are shown in the presence of archaic words (often preserved in poetic language) and a general difference in style. For example, the book of Job reflects a more archaic style than the book of Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Various Hebrew dialects apparently existed side by side in OT times, as reflected in the episode involving the pronunciation of the Hebrew word “shibboleth\/sibboleth” (Jgs 12:4-6). It seems that the Israelites east of the Jordan pronounced the initial letter with a strong “sh” sound, while those in Canaan gave it the simple “s” sound. Scholars have also identified features of Hebrew that could be described as reflecting the northern or southern parts of the country.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyofLanguages\">Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew belongs to the Semitic family of languages; these languages were used from the Mediterranean Sea to the mountains east of the Euphrates River valley, and from Armenia (Turkey) in the north to the southern extremity of the Arabian peninsula. Semitic languages are classified as Southern (Arabic and Ethiopic), Eastern (Akkadian), and Northwestern (Aramaic, Syriac, and Canaanite—Hebrew, Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, like the other early Semitic languages, concentrates on observation more than reflection. That is, things are generally observed according to their appearance as phenomena, not analyzed as to their inward being or essence. Effects are observed but not traced through a series of causes.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew’s vividness, conciseness, and simplicity make the language difficult to translate fully. It is amazingly concise and direct. For example, Psalm 23 contains 55 words; most translations require about twice that many to translate it. The first two lines, with slashes separating the individual Hebrew words in the original, read:<\/p>\n<p>The Lord\/[is] my shepherd\/<\/p>\n<p>I shall want\/not<\/p>\n<p>Thus eight English words are required to translate four Hebrew words.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew does not use separate, distinct expressions for every shade of thought. Someone has said, “The Semites have been the quarries whose great rough blocks the Greeks have trimmed, polished, and fitted together. The former gave religion; the latter philosophy.”<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is a pictorial language in which the past is not merely described but verbally painted. Not just a landscape is presented but a moving panorama. The course of events is reenacted in the mind’s sight. (Note the frequent use of “behold,” a Hebraism carried over to the NT.) Such common Hebraic expressions as “he arose and went,” “he opened his lips and spoke,” “he lifted up his eyes and saw,” and “he lifted up his voice and wept” illustrate the pictorial strength of the language.<\/p>\n<p>Many profound theological expressions of the OT are tightly bound up with Hebrew language and grammar. Even the most sacred name of God himself, “the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Yahweh), is directly related to the Hebrew verb “to be” (or perhaps “to cause to be”). Many other names of persons and places in the OT can best be understood only with a working knowledge of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewScriptandGrammar\">Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<h5>Alphabet and Script<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonants; signs for vowels were devised and added late in the language’s history. The origin of the alphabet is unknown. The oldest examples of a Canaanite alphabet were preserved in the Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The old style of writing the letters is called the Phoenician or paleo-Hebrew script. It is the predecessor of the Greek and other Western alphabets. The script used in modern Hebrew Bibles (Aramaic or square script) came into vogue after Israel’s exile into Babylon (sixth century <span>BC<\/span>). The older style was still used sporadically in the early Christian era on coins and for writing God’s name (as in the Dead Sea Scrolls). Hebrew has always been written right to left.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Consonants<\/h5>\n<p>The Canaanite alphabet of the Phoenician and Moabite languages had 22 consonants. The older Canaanite language reflected in Ugaritic had more consonants. Arabic also preserves some Old Canaanite consonants found in Ugaritic but missing in Hebrew.<\/p>\n<h5>Vowels<\/h5>\n<p>In the original consonantal Hebrew script, vowels were simply understood by the writer or reader. On the basis of tradition and context, the reader would supply whatever vowels were needed, much as is done in English abbreviations (“bldg.” for “building”; “blvd.” for “boulevard”). After the collapse of the nation in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the dispersion of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem led to Hebrew’s becoming a “dead language,” no longer widely spoken. Loss of traditional pronunciation and understanding then became more of a possibility, so Jewish scribes felt a need for permanently establishing the vowel sounds.<\/p>\n<p>First, vowel letters called “mothers of reading” <em>(matres lectionis)<\/em> were added. These were consonants used especially to indicate long vowels. These were added before the Christian era, as the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal.<\/p>\n<p>Later (about the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>), the scribes called Masoretes added vowel signs to indicate short vowels. At least three different systems of vowel signs were employed at different times and places. The text used today represents the system devised by Masoretic scribes who worked in the city of Tiberias. The vowels, each of which may be long or short, are indicated by dots or dashes placed above or below the consonants. Certain combinations of dots and dashes represent very short vowel sounds, or “half-vowels.”<\/p>\n<h5>Linkage<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew joins together many words that in Western languages would be written separately. Some prepositions (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">be<\/span>-, “in”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ke<\/span>-, “like”) are prefixed directly to the noun or verb that they introduce, as are the definite article <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ha<\/span>-, “the” and the conjunction <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wa<\/span>-, “and.” Suffixes are used for pronouns, either in the possessive or accusative relationship. The same word may simultaneously have both a prefix and a suffix.<\/p>\n<h5>Nouns<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew has no neuter gender; everything is masculine or feminine. Inanimate objects may be either masculine or feminine, depending on the formation or character of the word. Usually, abstract ideas or words indicating a group are feminine. Nouns are derived from roots and are formed in various ways, either by vowel modification or by adding prefixes or suffixes to the root. Contrary to Greek and many Western languages, compound nouns are not characteristic of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew plural is formed by adding -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">im<\/span> for masculine nouns <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seraphim, cherubim<\/span><em>)<\/em> and -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">oth<\/span> for feminine nouns.<\/p>\n<p>Three original case endings indicating nominative, genitive, and accusative have dropped away during the evolution of Hebrew. To compensate for the lack of case endings, Hebrew resorts to various indicators. Indirect objects are indicated by the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; direct objects by the objective sign <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’eth<\/span><em>;<\/em> the genitive relationship by putting the word before the genitive in the “construct state,” or shortened form.<\/p>\n<h5>Adjectives<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew is deficient in adjectives. “A double heart” is indicated in the original Hebrew by “a heart and a heart” (Ps 12:2), and “two differing weights” is actually “a stone and a stone” (Dt 25:13); “the whole royal family” is “the seed of the kingdom” (2 Kgs 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>Adjectives that do exist in Hebrew have no comparative or superlative forms. Relationship is indicated by the preposition “from.” “Better than you” is expressed literally in Hebrew “good from you.” “The serpent was more subtle than any other beast” is literally “the serpent was subtle from every beast” (Gn 3:1). The superlative is expressed by several different constructions. The idea “very deep” is literally “deep, deep” (Eccl 7:24); the “best song” is literally “song of songs” (compare “king of kings”); “holiest” is literally “holy, holy, holy” (Is 6:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Verbs<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew verbs are formed from a root usually consisting of three letters. From such roots, verbal forms are developed by a change of vowels or by adding prefixes or suffixes. The root consonants provide the semantic backbone of the language and give a stability of meaning not characteristic of Western languages. The vowels are quite flexible, giving Hebrew considerable elasticity.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew verb usage is not characterized by precise definition of tenses. Hebrew tenses, especially in poetry, are largely determined by context. The two tense formations are the perfect (completed action) and imperfect (incomplete action). The imperfect is ambiguous. It represents the indicative mood (present, past, future) but may also represent such moods as the imperative, optative, and jussive or cohortative. A distinctive usage of the perfect tense is the “prophetic perfect,” where the perfect form represents a future event considered so sure that it is expressed as past (e.g., see Is 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>Most Hebrew roots originally expressed some physical action or denoted some natural object. The verb “to decide” originally meant “to cut”; “to be true” originally meant “to be firmly fixed”; “to be right” meant “to be straight”; “to be honorable” meant “to be heavy.”<\/p>\n<p>Abstract terms are alien to the character of Hebrew; for example, biblical Hebrew has no specific words for “theology,” “philosophy,” or “religion.” Intellectual or theological concepts are expressed by concrete terms. The abstract idea of sin is represented by such words as “to miss the mark” or “crooked” or “rebellion” or “trespass” (“to cross over”). Mind or intellect is expressed by “heart” or “kidneys,” and emotion or compassion by “bowels” (see Is 63:15, <span>kjv<\/span>). Other concrete terms in Hebrew are “horn” for strength or vigor, “bones” for self, and “seed” for descendants. A mental quality is often depicted by the part of the body thought of as its most appropriate embodiment. Strength can be represented by “arm” or “hand,” anger by “nostril,” displeasure by “falling face,” acceptance by “shining face,” thinking by “say.”<\/p>\n<p>Some translators have attempted to represent a Hebrew word always by the same English word, but that leads to serious problems. Sometimes there is considerable disagreement on the exact shade of meaning of a Hebrew word in a given passage. A single root frequently represents a variety of meanings, depending on usage and context. The word for “bless” can also mean “curse, greet, favor, praise.” The word for “judgment” is used also for “justice, verdict, penalty, ordinance, duty, custom, manner.” The word for “strength” or “power” also means “army, virtue, worth, courage.”<\/p>\n<p>Further ambiguity arises from the fact that some Hebrew consonants stand for two different original consonants that have merged in the evolution of the language. Two words that on the surface appear to be identical may be traced back to two different roots. For an example of this phenomenon in English, compare “bass” (a fish) with “bass” (a vocalist).<\/p>\n<h5>Syntax<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew syntax is relatively uncomplicated. Few subordinating conjunctions (“if,” “when,” “because,” etc.) are used; sentences are usually coordinated by using the simple conjunction “and.” English translations of biblical texts generally try to show the logical connection between successive sentences, even though it is not always clear. In Genesis 1:2–3:1, all but three of the 56 verses begin with “and,” yet the <span>nlt<\/span> translates that conjunction variously as “then” (1:3), “so” (v 27), “so” (2:1), and “instead” (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew style is enlivened by use of direct discourse. The narrator does not simply state that “such and such a person said that . . .” (indirect discourse). Instead, the parties speak for themselves (direct discourse), creating a freshness that remains even after repeated reading.<\/p>\n<h5>Poetry<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew poetry uses a variety of rhetorical devices. Some of them—such as assonance, alliteration, and acrostics—can be appreciated only in the original Hebrew. But parallelism, the most important characteristic of Hebrew poetry, is evident even in English translation. Among the many forms of parallelism possible, four common categories exist: (1) synonymous, a repeating style in which parallel lines say the same thing in different words; (2) antithetic, a contrasting style in which contrary thoughts are expressed; (3) completive, with a completing parallel line filling out the thought of the first; (4) climactic, in which an ascending parallel line picks up something from the first line and repeats it. Numerous other forms of parallelism enrich Hebrew poetry. The possible varations of parallelism are almost endless.<\/p>\n<h5>Figures of Speech<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew abounds in expressive figures of speech based on the Hebrew people’s character and way of life. Certain odd but well-known expressions found in English literature come from the Hebrew style, like “apple of his eye” (Dt 32:10; Ps 17:8; Prv 7:2; Zec 2:8) and “skin of my teeth” (Job 19:20). Some of the more striking Hebrew modes of expression are hard to transfer into English, such as “to uncover the ear,” meaning “to disclose, reveal.” Others are more familiar, like “to stiffen the neck” for “to be stubborn, rebellious”; “to bend or incline the ear” for “to listen closely.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Legacy\">Legacy<\/p>\n<p>English and a number of other modern languages have been enriched by Hebrew. English even contains a number of Hebrew “loan words.” Some of these have had wide influence (“amen,” “hallelujah,” “jubilee”). Many Hebrew proper nouns are used in modern languages for persons and places, such as David, Jonathan\/John, Miriam\/Mary, Bethlehem (the name of several towns and cities in the United States).<\/p>\n<p>Many common Hebrew expressions have been unconsciously accepted into English figures of speech, as in “mouth of the cave” and “face of the earth.” Some figures, such as “east of Eden,” have been used as titles for books and films.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEBREW LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>• Character<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<p>• Style<\/p>\n<p>• Legacy<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>In the Middle Ages a common view was that Hebrew was the primitive language of humankind. Even in colonial America, Hebrew was still referred to as “the mother of all languages.” Linguistic scholarship has now made this theory untenable.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is actually one of several Canaanite dialects that included Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite. Other Canaanite dialects (for example, Ammonite) existed but have left insufficient inscriptions for scholarly investigation. Such dialects were already present in the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Until about 1974, the oldest witnesses to Canaanite language were found in the Ugarit and Amarna records dating from the 14th and 15th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. A few Canaanite words and expressions appeared in earlier Egyptian records, but the origin of Canaanite has been uncertain. Between 1974 and 1976, however, nearly 17,000 tablets were dug up at Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) in northern Syria, written in a previously unknown Semitic dialect. Because they possibly date back to 2400 <span>BC<\/span> (perhaps even earlier), many scholars think that language may be the “Old Canaanite” that gave rise to Hebrew. By 1977, when another 1,000 tablets were unearthed, only about 100 inscriptions from Ebla had been reported on. Languages change over a long period of time. For example, the English used in the time of Alfred the Great (ninth century <span>AD<\/span>) seems almost like a foreign language to contemporary English speakers. Although Hebrew was no exception to the general principle, like other Semitic languages it remained remarkably stable over many centuries. Poems such as the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5) tended to preserve the language’s oldest form. Changes that took place later in the long history of the language are shown in the presence of archaic words (often preserved in poetic language) and a general difference in style. For example, the book of Job reflects a more archaic style than the book of Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Various Hebrew dialects apparently existed side by side in OT times, as reflected in the episode involving the pronunciation of the Hebrew word “shibboleth\/sibboleth” (Jgs 12:4-6). It seems that the Israelites east of the Jordan pronounced the initial letter with a strong “sh” sound, while those in Canaan gave it the simple “s” sound. Scholars have also identified features of Hebrew that could be described as reflecting the northern or southern parts of the country.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyofLanguages\">Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew belongs to the Semitic family of languages; these languages were used from the Mediterranean Sea to the mountains east of the Euphrates River valley, and from Armenia (Turkey) in the north to the southern extremity of the Arabian peninsula. Semitic languages are classified as Southern (Arabic and Ethiopic), Eastern (Akkadian), and Northwestern (Aramaic, Syriac, and Canaanite—Hebrew, Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, like the other early Semitic languages, concentrates on observation more than reflection. That is, things are generally observed according to their appearance as phenomena, not analyzed as to their inward being or essence. Effects are observed but not traced through a series of causes.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew’s vividness, conciseness, and simplicity make the language difficult to translate fully. It is amazingly concise and direct. For example, Psalm 23 contains 55 words; most translations require about twice that many to translate it. The first two lines, with slashes separating the individual Hebrew words in the original, read:<\/p>\n<p>The Lord\/[is] my shepherd\/<\/p>\n<p>I shall want\/not<\/p>\n<p>Thus eight English words are required to translate four Hebrew words.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew does not use separate, distinct expressions for every shade of thought. Someone has said, “The Semites have been the quarries whose great rough blocks the Greeks have trimmed, polished, and fitted together. The former gave religion; the latter philosophy.”<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is a pictorial language in which the past is not merely described but verbally painted. Not just a landscape is presented but a moving panorama. The course of events is reenacted in the mind’s sight. (Note the frequent use of “behold,” a Hebraism carried over to the NT.) Such common Hebraic expressions as “he arose and went,” “he opened his lips and spoke,” “he lifted up his eyes and saw,” and “he lifted up his voice and wept” illustrate the pictorial strength of the language.<\/p>\n<p>Many profound theological expressions of the OT are tightly bound up with Hebrew language and grammar. Even the most sacred name of God himself, “the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Yahweh), is directly related to the Hebrew verb “to be” (or perhaps “to cause to be”). Many other names of persons and places in the OT can best be understood only with a working knowledge of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewScriptandGrammar\">Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<h5>Alphabet and Script<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonants; signs for vowels were devised and added late in the language’s history. The origin of the alphabet is unknown. The oldest examples of a Canaanite alphabet were preserved in the Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The old style of writing the letters is called the Phoenician or paleo-Hebrew script. It is the predecessor of the Greek and other Western alphabets. The script used in modern Hebrew Bibles (Aramaic or square script) came into vogue after Israel’s exile into Babylon (sixth century <span>BC<\/span>). The older style was still used sporadically in the early Christian era on coins and for writing God’s name (as in the Dead Sea Scrolls). Hebrew has always been written right to left.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Consonants<\/h5>\n<p>The Canaanite alphabet of the Phoenician and Moabite languages had 22 consonants. The older Canaanite language reflected in Ugaritic had more consonants. Arabic also preserves some Old Canaanite consonants found in Ugaritic but missing in Hebrew.<\/p>\n<h5>Vowels<\/h5>\n<p>In the original consonantal Hebrew script, vowels were simply understood by the writer or reader. On the basis of tradition and context, the reader would supply whatever vowels were needed, much as is done in English abbreviations (“bldg.” for “building”; “blvd.” for “boulevard”). After the collapse of the nation in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the dispersion of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem led to Hebrew’s becoming a “dead language,” no longer widely spoken. Loss of traditional pronunciation and understanding then became more of a possibility, so Jewish scribes felt a need for permanently establishing the vowel sounds.<\/p>\n<p>First, vowel letters called “mothers of reading” <em>(matres lectionis)<\/em> were added. These were consonants used especially to indicate long vowels. These were added before the Christian era, as the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal.<\/p>\n<p>Later (about the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>), the scribes called Masoretes added vowel signs to indicate short vowels. At least three different systems of vowel signs were employed at different times and places. The text used today represents the system devised by Masoretic scribes who worked in the city of Tiberias. The vowels, each of which may be long or short, are indicated by dots or dashes placed above or below the consonants. Certain combinations of dots and dashes represent very short vowel sounds, or “half-vowels.”<\/p>\n<h5>Linkage<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew joins together many words that in Western languages would be written separately. Some prepositions (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">be<\/span>-, “in”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ke<\/span>-, “like”) are prefixed directly to the noun or verb that they introduce, as are the definite article <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ha<\/span>-, “the” and the conjunction <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wa<\/span>-, “and.” Suffixes are used for pronouns, either in the possessive or accusative relationship. The same word may simultaneously have both a prefix and a suffix.<\/p>\n<h5>Nouns<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew has no neuter gender; everything is masculine or feminine. Inanimate objects may be either masculine or feminine, depending on the formation or character of the word. Usually, abstract ideas or words indicating a group are feminine. Nouns are derived from roots and are formed in various ways, either by vowel modification or by adding prefixes or suffixes to the root. Contrary to Greek and many Western languages, compound nouns are not characteristic of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew plural is formed by adding -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">im<\/span> for masculine nouns <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seraphim, cherubim<\/span><em>)<\/em> and -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">oth<\/span> for feminine nouns.<\/p>\n<p>Three original case endings indicating nominative, genitive, and accusative have dropped away during the evolution of Hebrew. To compensate for the lack of case endings, Hebrew resorts to various indicators. Indirect objects are indicated by the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; direct objects by the objective sign <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’eth<\/span><em>;<\/em> the genitive relationship by putting the word before the genitive in the “construct state,” or shortened form.<\/p>\n<h5>Adjectives<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew is deficient in adjectives. “A double heart” is indicated in the original Hebrew by “a heart and a heart” (Ps 12:2), and “two differing weights” is actually “a stone and a stone” (Dt 25:13); “the whole royal family” is “the seed of the kingdom” (2 Kgs 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>Adjectives that do exist in Hebrew have no comparative or superlative forms. Relationship is indicated by the preposition “from.” “Better than you” is expressed literally in Hebrew “good from you.” “The serpent was more subtle than any other beast” is literally “the serpent was subtle from every beast” (Gn 3:1). The superlative is expressed by several different constructions. The idea “very deep” is literally “deep, deep” (Eccl 7:24); the “best song” is literally “song of songs” (compare “king of kings”); “holiest” is literally “holy, holy, holy” (Is 6:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Verbs<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew verbs are formed from a root usually consisting of three letters. From such roots, verbal forms are developed by a change of vowels or by adding prefixes or suffixes. The root consonants provide the semantic backbone of the language and give a stability of meaning not characteristic of Western languages. The vowels are quite flexible, giving Hebrew considerable elasticity.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew verb usage is not characterized by precise definition of tenses. Hebrew tenses, especially in poetry, are largely determined by context. The two tense formations are the perfect (completed action) and imperfect (incomplete action). The imperfect is ambiguous. It represents the indicative mood (present, past, future) but may also represent such moods as the imperative, optative, and jussive or cohortative. A distinctive usage of the perfect tense is the “prophetic perfect,” where the perfect form represents a future event considered so sure that it is expressed as past (e.g., see Is 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>Most Hebrew roots originally expressed some physical action or denoted some natural object. The verb “to decide” originally meant “to cut”; “to be true” originally meant “to be firmly fixed”; “to be right” meant “to be straight”; “to be honorable” meant “to be heavy.”<\/p>\n<p>Abstract terms are alien to the character of Hebrew; for example, biblical Hebrew has no specific words for “theology,” “philosophy,” or “religion.” Intellectual or theological concepts are expressed by concrete terms. The abstract idea of sin is represented by such words as “to miss the mark” or “crooked” or “rebellion” or “trespass” (“to cross over”). Mind or intellect is expressed by “heart” or “kidneys,” and emotion or compassion by “bowels” (see Is 63:15, <span>kjv<\/span>). Other concrete terms in Hebrew are “horn” for strength or vigor, “bones” for self, and “seed” for descendants. A mental quality is often depicted by the part of the body thought of as its most appropriate embodiment. Strength can be represented by “arm” or “hand,” anger by “nostril,” displeasure by “falling face,” acceptance by “shining face,” thinking by “say.”<\/p>\n<p>Some translators have attempted to represent a Hebrew word always by the same English word, but that leads to serious problems. Sometimes there is considerable disagreement on the exact shade of meaning of a Hebrew word in a given passage. A single root frequently represents a variety of meanings, depending on usage and context. The word for “bless” can also mean “curse, greet, favor, praise.” The word for “judgment” is used also for “justice, verdict, penalty, ordinance, duty, custom, manner.” The word for “strength” or “power” also means “army, virtue, worth, courage.”<\/p>\n<p>Further ambiguity arises from the fact that some Hebrew consonants stand for two different original consonants that have merged in the evolution of the language. Two words that on the surface appear to be identical may be traced back to two different roots. For an example of this phenomenon in English, compare “bass” (a fish) with “bass” (a vocalist).<\/p>\n<h5>Syntax<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew syntax is relatively uncomplicated. Few subordinating conjunctions (“if,” “when,” “because,” etc.) are used; sentences are usually coordinated by using the simple conjunction “and.” English translations of biblical texts generally try to show the logical connection between successive sentences, even though it is not always clear. In Genesis 1:2–3:1, all but three of the 56 verses begin with “and,” yet the <span>nlt<\/span> translates that conjunction variously as “then” (1:3), “so” (v 27), “so” (2:1), and “instead” (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew style is enlivened by use of direct discourse. The narrator does not simply state that “such and such a person said that . . .” (indirect discourse). Instead, the parties speak for themselves (direct discourse), creating a freshness that remains even after repeated reading.<\/p>\n<h5>Poetry<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew poetry uses a variety of rhetorical devices. Some of them—such as assonance, alliteration, and acrostics—can be appreciated only in the original Hebrew. But parallelism, the most important characteristic of Hebrew poetry, is evident even in English translation. Among the many forms of parallelism possible, four common categories exist: (1) synonymous, a repeating style in which parallel lines say the same thing in different words; (2) antithetic, a contrasting style in which contrary thoughts are expressed; (3) completive, with a completing parallel line filling out the thought of the first; (4) climactic, in which an ascending parallel line picks up something from the first line and repeats it. Numerous other forms of parallelism enrich Hebrew poetry. The possible varations of parallelism are almost endless.<\/p>\n<h5>Figures of Speech<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew abounds in expressive figures of speech based on the Hebrew people’s character and way of life. Certain odd but well-known expressions found in English literature come from the Hebrew style, like “apple of his eye” (Dt 32:10; Ps 17:8; Prv 7:2; Zec 2:8) and “skin of my teeth” (Job 19:20). Some of the more striking Hebrew modes of expression are hard to transfer into English, such as “to uncover the ear,” meaning “to disclose, reveal.” Others are more familiar, like “to stiffen the neck” for “to be stubborn, rebellious”; “to bend or incline the ear” for “to listen closely.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Legacy\">Legacy<\/p>\n<p>English and a number of other modern languages have been enriched by Hebrew. English even contains a number of Hebrew “loan words.” Some of these have had wide influence (“amen,” “hallelujah,” “jubilee”). Many Hebrew proper nouns are used in modern languages for persons and places, such as David, Jonathan\/John, Miriam\/Mary, Bethlehem (the name of several towns and cities in the United States).<\/p>\n<p>Many common Hebrew expressions have been unconsciously accepted into English figures of speech, as in “mouth of the cave” and “face of the earth.” Some figures, such as “east of Eden,” have been used as titles for books and films.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEBREW LANGUAGE Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, nlt mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24). Preview • Origin and History • Family of Languages • Character • Hebrew Script and Grammar • Style • Legacy Origin and History In the Middle Ages a common v...","summary_en":"HEBREW LANGUAGE Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, nlt mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24). Preview • Origin and History • Family of Languages • Character • Hebrew Script and Grammar • Style • Legacy Origin and History In the Middle Ages a common v...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16766,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Hosea","title_en":"Book of Hosea","content_ro":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","summary_en":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51096,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","summary_en":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78722,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","summary_en":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106348,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","summary_en":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133974,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:13","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:13<\/strong> Israel and Judah would <em>go into exile<\/em> to Assyria (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and Babylon (586 <span>BC<\/span>). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not <em>know<\/em> him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","summary_en":"5:13 Israel and Judah would go into exile to Assyria (722 BC) and Babylon (586 BC). • The people did not respond to the Lord because they did not know him (see 1:3). They likely knew about him, but their behavior showed that they did not know him in any intimate way.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63135,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90761,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118387,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146013,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":14969,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hades*","title_en":"Hades*","content_ro":"<h3>HADES*<\/h3>\n<p>Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s <em>Odyssey<\/em> 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike existence that happened to all who died, good and evil alike. Gradually they and the Romans came to see it as a place of reward and punishment, an elaborately organized and guarded realm where the good were rewarded in the Elysian Fields and the evil were punished (so described by the Roman poet Virgil, 70–19 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Hades” became important to the Jews as the typical term used by the translators of the Septuagint to render the Hebrew name “Sheol” into Greek. This was a very suitable translation for the Hebrew term, for both words can signify the physical grave or death (Gn 37:35; Prv 5:5; 7:27), and both originally referred to a dark underworld (Jb 10:21-22) where existence was at best shadowy (Jb 38:17; Is 14:9). Sheol is described as under the ocean (Jb 26:5-6; Jon 2:2-3) and as having bars and gates (Jb 17:16). All people go there whether they are good or evil (Ps 89:48). In the earlier literature there is no hope of release from Sheol\/hades. C. S. Lewis describes this concept well in <em>The Silver Chair:<\/em> “Many sink down, and few return to the sunlit lands.” Of course, all these descriptions are in poetic literature; how literally the Hebrews (or the Greeks, for that matter) took their descriptions of hades\/Sheol is hard to say. They may have simply used the older picture-language of Greek poetry to describe that for which prose words were inadequate.<\/p>\n<p>Jew and Greek alike came in contact with Persia—the Jews at the time the postexilic writers were composing their books (e.g., Malachi, Daniel, and some psalms), and the Greeks somewhat later (they fought the Persians 520–479 <span>BC<\/span> and conquered them 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether because of Persian influence on these groups or not, during this period, the idea of reward and punishment after death developed, and Sheol\/hades changed from a shadow land to a differentiated place of reward and punishment for both Greeks (and Romans) and Jews. Josephus records that the Pharisees believed in reward and punishment at death (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.3), and a similar idea appears in 1 Enoch 22. In these and many other cases in Jewish literature, hades stands for the one place of the dead, which has two or more compartments. In other Jewish literature, hades is the place of torment for the wicked, while the righteous enter paradise (Pss of Sol 14; Wisd of Sol 2:1; 3:1). Thus, by the beginning of the NT period, hades has three meanings: (1) death, (2) the place of all the dead, and (3) the place of the wicked dead only. Context determines which meaning an author intends in a given passage.<\/p>\n<p>All these meanings appear in the NT. In Matthew 11:23 and Luke 10:15, Jesus speaks of Capernaum’s descending to hades (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Most likely he simply means that the city will “die” or be destroyed. “Hades” means “death” in this context, as “heaven” means “exaltation.” Revelation 6:8 also exemplifies this: Death comes on a horse, and hades (a symbol of death) comes close behind. This personification of hades probably comes from the OT, where hades\/Sheol is viewed as a monster that devours people (Prv 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Is 5:14; 28:15, 18; Hb 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 16:18 is a more difficult use of hades. The church will be built upon a rock and the gates of hades will not prevail against it. Here the place of the dead (complete with gates and bars) is a symbol for death: Christians may in fact be killed, but death (the gates of hades) will no more hold them than it held Christ. He who burst out of hades will bring his people out as well. This is also the meaning of Acts 2:27 (quoting Ps 16:10): Christ did not stay dead; his life did not remain in hades; unlike David, he rose from the dead. It is uncertain in either of these cases whether hades is simply a symbol for death or whether it means that Christ and the Christian actually went to a place of the dead called hades; probably the former is intended. Whatever the case, since Christ did rise, he has conquered death and hades. He appears in Revelation 1:18 as the one holding the keys (the control) to both.<\/p>\n<p>Two NT passages refer to hades as the place where the dead exist: Revelation 20:13-14 and Luke 16:23. In Revelation 20 hades is emptied of all who are in it (either all dead or the wicked dead, depending on one’s eschatology)—the resurrection is complete. When the wicked are judged and cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), hades is also thrown in. Luke 16:23, however, clearly refers to hades as the place of the wicked dead. There the rich man is tormented in a flame, while the poor man, Lazarus, goes to paradise (Abraham’s bosom).<\/p>\n<p>Hades, then, means three things in the NT, as it did in Jewish literature: (1) Death and its power is the most frequent meaning, especially in metaphorical uses. (2) It also means the place of the dead in general, when a writer wants to lump all the dead together. (3) It means, finally, the place where the wicked dead are tormented before the final judgment. This is its narrowest meaning, occurring only once in the NT (Lk 16:23). The Bible does not dwell on this torment—Dante’s picture in <em>The Inferno<\/em> draws on later speculation and Greco-Roman conceptions of hades more than on the Bible.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Gehenna; Hell; Sheol.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HADES*<\/h3>\n<p>Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s <em>Odyssey<\/em> 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike existence that happened to all who died, good and evil alike. Gradually they and the Romans came to see it as a place of reward and punishment, an elaborately organized and guarded realm where the good were rewarded in the Elysian Fields and the evil were punished (so described by the Roman poet Virgil, 70–19 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>“Hades” became important to the Jews as the typical term used by the translators of the Septuagint to render the Hebrew name “Sheol” into Greek. This was a very suitable translation for the Hebrew term, for both words can signify the physical grave or death (Gn 37:35; Prv 5:5; 7:27), and both originally referred to a dark underworld (Jb 10:21-22) where existence was at best shadowy (Jb 38:17; Is 14:9). Sheol is described as under the ocean (Jb 26:5-6; Jon 2:2-3) and as having bars and gates (Jb 17:16). All people go there whether they are good or evil (Ps 89:48). In the earlier literature there is no hope of release from Sheol\/hades. C. S. Lewis describes this concept well in <em>The Silver Chair:<\/em> “Many sink down, and few return to the sunlit lands.” Of course, all these descriptions are in poetic literature; how literally the Hebrews (or the Greeks, for that matter) took their descriptions of hades\/Sheol is hard to say. They may have simply used the older picture-language of Greek poetry to describe that for which prose words were inadequate.<\/p>\n<p>Jew and Greek alike came in contact with Persia—the Jews at the time the postexilic writers were composing their books (e.g., Malachi, Daniel, and some psalms), and the Greeks somewhat later (they fought the Persians 520–479 <span>BC<\/span> and conquered them 334–330 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether because of Persian influence on these groups or not, during this period, the idea of reward and punishment after death developed, and Sheol\/hades changed from a shadow land to a differentiated place of reward and punishment for both Greeks (and Romans) and Jews. Josephus records that the Pharisees believed in reward and punishment at death (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.3), and a similar idea appears in 1 Enoch 22. In these and many other cases in Jewish literature, hades stands for the one place of the dead, which has two or more compartments. In other Jewish literature, hades is the place of torment for the wicked, while the righteous enter paradise (Pss of Sol 14; Wisd of Sol 2:1; 3:1). Thus, by the beginning of the NT period, hades has three meanings: (1) death, (2) the place of all the dead, and (3) the place of the wicked dead only. Context determines which meaning an author intends in a given passage.<\/p>\n<p>All these meanings appear in the NT. In Matthew 11:23 and Luke 10:15, Jesus speaks of Capernaum’s descending to hades (<span>nlt<\/span> mg). Most likely he simply means that the city will “die” or be destroyed. “Hades” means “death” in this context, as “heaven” means “exaltation.” Revelation 6:8 also exemplifies this: Death comes on a horse, and hades (a symbol of death) comes close behind. This personification of hades probably comes from the OT, where hades\/Sheol is viewed as a monster that devours people (Prv 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Is 5:14; 28:15, 18; Hb 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 16:18 is a more difficult use of hades. The church will be built upon a rock and the gates of hades will not prevail against it. Here the place of the dead (complete with gates and bars) is a symbol for death: Christians may in fact be killed, but death (the gates of hades) will no more hold them than it held Christ. He who burst out of hades will bring his people out as well. This is also the meaning of Acts 2:27 (quoting Ps 16:10): Christ did not stay dead; his life did not remain in hades; unlike David, he rose from the dead. It is uncertain in either of these cases whether hades is simply a symbol for death or whether it means that Christ and the Christian actually went to a place of the dead called hades; probably the former is intended. Whatever the case, since Christ did rise, he has conquered death and hades. He appears in Revelation 1:18 as the one holding the keys (the control) to both.<\/p>\n<p>Two NT passages refer to hades as the place where the dead exist: Revelation 20:13-14 and Luke 16:23. In Revelation 20 hades is emptied of all who are in it (either all dead or the wicked dead, depending on one’s eschatology)—the resurrection is complete. When the wicked are judged and cast into the lake of fire (Gehenna), hades is also thrown in. Luke 16:23, however, clearly refers to hades as the place of the wicked dead. There the rich man is tormented in a flame, while the poor man, Lazarus, goes to paradise (Abraham’s bosom).<\/p>\n<p>Hades, then, means three things in the NT, as it did in Jewish literature: (1) Death and its power is the most frequent meaning, especially in metaphorical uses. (2) It also means the place of the dead in general, when a writer wants to lump all the dead together. (3) It means, finally, the place where the wicked dead are tormented before the final judgment. This is its narrowest meaning, occurring only once in the NT (Lk 16:23). The Bible does not dwell on this torment—Dante’s picture in <em>The Inferno<\/em> draws on later speculation and Greco-Roman conceptions of hades more than on the Bible.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Gehenna; Hell; Sheol.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HADES* Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s Odyssey 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike e...","summary_en":"HADES* Abode of the dead. In Greek mythology Hades was originally the god of the underworld (also named Pluto), a brother of Zeus. He was the abductor of Persephone and thus the cause of winter. His realm, which was called by his name (and also called Tartarus), was the dark land where the dead existed. Odysseus entered that realm and fed the ghosts with blood to get directions back home (Homer’s Odyssey 4.834). Originally the Greeks thought of hades as simply the grave—a shadowy, ghostlike e...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51097,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","summary_en":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78723,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","summary_en":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106349,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","summary_en":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133975,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:14","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:14<\/strong> The <em>grave<\/em> (Hebrew <em>Sheol<\/em>) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","summary_en":"5:14 The grave (Hebrew Sheol) represented the place of the dead in ancient Near Eastern thinking (see 14:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62468,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90094,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117720,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145346,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Afterlife","title_en":"The Afterlife","content_ro":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Afterlife<\/h3>\n<p>Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>In Job, the key images of the realm of the dead are dark and dusty Sheol (Job 11:8; 14:13; 17:13, 16; 24:19; 26:6), a pit fouled with the filth of decomposition (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shakhat<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 9:31; 17:14; 33:18, 22, 24, 28, 30), and the grave (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qeber<\/span><em>;<\/em> see 3:22; 5:26; 10:19; 17:1; 21:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament does give occasional hints of deliverance from the grave (see 1 Sam 2:6; Pss 16:10-11; 30:3; 49:15; 56:13; 73:24-26; 86:13; 139:7-10; Isa 26:19). Job hopes that Sheol might relieve him of his troubles (Job 3:13-22; 14:13-17) and that a redeemer might justify him even after death (19:25-26). But only the New Testament gives the full promise of redemption from death (1 Cor 15:50-58).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6; 28:11-15; 1 Kgs 17:20-22; 2 Kgs 4:32-35; Job 3:13-22; 7:9; 14:13-17; 17:13-16; 19:25-27; Pss 6:5; 16:10-11; 17:15; 49:15; 86:13; 88:11; 139:8; 141:7; Prov 1:12; 15:11; Isa 26:19; 38:18; Ezek 26:20; Matt 22:31-32; Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:50-58; Phil 3:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","summary_en":"The Afterlife Writers in the Old Testament describe the realm of the dead as a place beneath the earth’s surface to which people descend (Ezek 26:20). Sometimes they are swallowed alive (Num 16:31-33; Ps 55:15), but generally they are dragged down by the cords of death (Ps 18:4-5) to be consumed (Num 16:30; Job 24:19; Pss 49:14; Isa 5:14; 14:11). In the Old Testament, the afterlife is generally regarded as a gloomy, hopeless place of no return (Job 7:9; Isa 38:18). In Job, the key images of t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":31269,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pride","title_en":"Pride","content_ro":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","summary_en":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64752,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92378,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120004,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147630,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":16525,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Holiness","title_en":"Holiness","content_ro":"<h3>HOLINESS<\/h3>\n<p>Chief attribute of God and a quality to be developed in his people. “Holiness” and the adjective “holy” occur more than 900 times in the Bible. The primary OT word for holiness means “to cut” or “to separate.” Fundamentally, holiness is a cutting off or separation from what is unclean and a consecration to what is pure.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, holiness as applied to God signifies his transcendence over creation and the moral perfection of his character. God is holy in that he is utterly distinct from his creation and exercises sovereign majesty and power over it. His holiness is especially prominent in the Psalms (47:8) and the Prophets (Ez 39:7), where “holiness” emerges as a synonym for Israel’s God. Thus, Scripture ascribes to God the title “Holy” (Is 57:15), “Holy One” (Jb 6:10; Is 43:15), and “Holy One of Israel” (Ps 89:18; Is 60:14; Jer 50:29).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT God’s holiness denotes that the Lord is separate from all that is evil and defiled (cf. Jb 34:10). His holy character is the standard of absolute moral perfection (Is 5:16). God’s holiness—his transcendent majesty and the purity of his character—are skillfully balanced in Psalm 99. Verses 1 through 3 portray God’s distance from the finite and earthbound, whereas verses 4 and 5 emphasize his separation from sin and evil.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT God demanded holiness in the lives of his people. Through Moses, God said to the congregation of Israel, “You shall be holy; for I the <span>Lord<\/span> your God am holy” (Lv 19:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The holiness enjoined by the OT was twofold: (1) external, or ceremonial; and (2) internal, or moral and spiritual. OT ceremonial holiness, prescribed in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the OT) included ritual consecration to God’s service. Thus priests and Levites were sanctified by a complex process of ritual consecration (Ex 29), as were the Hebrew Nazirites, which means “separated ones” (Nm 6:1-21). Prophets like Elisha (2 Kgs 4:9) and Jeremiah (Jer 1:5) were also sanctified for a special prophetic ministry in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>But the OT also draws attention to the inner, moral, and spiritual aspects of holiness. Men and women, created in the image of God, are called to cultivate the holiness of God’s own character in their lives (Lv 19:2; Nm 15:40). In the NT the ceremonial holiness prominent in the Pentateuch recedes to the background. Whereas much of Judaism in Jesus’ time sought a ceremonial holiness by works (Mk 7:1-5), the NT stresses the ethical rather than the formal dimension of holiness (vv 6-12). With the coming of the Holy Spirit, the early church perceived that holiness of life was a profound internal reality that should govern an individual’s thought and attitudes in relation to persons and objects in the external world.<\/p>\n<p>The NT Greek equivalent of the common Hebrew word for holiness signifies an inner state of freedom from moral fault and a relative harmony with the moral perfection of God. The word “godlikeness” or “godliness” captures the sense of the primary Greek word for holiness. Another Greek word approximates the dominant OT concept of holiness as external separation from the profane and dedication to the service of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Because the NT writers assumed the OT portrait of deity, holiness is ascribed to God in relatively few apostolic texts. Jesus affirmed the ethical nature of God when he enjoined his disciples to pray that the Father’s name might be esteemed for what it is: “Hallowed be thy name” (Mt 6:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). In the book of Revelation the Father’s moral perfection is extolled with the threefold ascription of holiness borrowed from Isaiah: “Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty, who was and is and is to come” (Rv 4:8, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Is 6:3). Luke, however, contemplated God’s holiness in terms of the dominant OT concept of his transcendence and majesty (Lk 1:49).<\/p>\n<p>Similarly the holiness of Jesus Christ is asserted in the NT. Luke (Lk 1:35; 4:34), Peter (Acts 3:14; 4:27-30), the writer of Hebrews (Heb 7:26), and John (Rv 3:7) ascribe holiness to both the Father and the Son.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Spirit comes from God, discloses his holy character, and is the instrument of God’s holy purposes in the world, he also is absolutely holy (Mt 1:18; 3:16; 28:19; Lk 1:15; 4:14). The common title “Holy Spirit” underscores the ethical perfection of the third person of the Godhead (Jn 3:5-8; 14:16-17, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, holiness also characterizes Christ’s church. The apostle Paul taught that Christ loved the church and died for it “that he might sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word” (Eph 5:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). Peter addressed the church as a holy people in language borrowed from the OT. Separated from the unbelieving nations and consecrated to the Lord, the church is “a holy nation” (1 Pt 2:9; cf. Ex 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>But the NT more often discusses holiness in relation to individual Christians. Believers in Christ are frequently designated as “saints,” literally meaning “holy ones,” since through faith God justifies sinners, pronouncing them “holy” in his sight. A justified sinner is by no means morally perfect, but God does declare believers to be guiltless. Thus, although Christians at Corinth, for example, were plagued with numerous sins, Paul could address his erring friends as those who were “sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints” (1 Cor 1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Despite their problems, the Corinthian believers were “holy ones” in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, however, places great stress upon the reality of practical holiness in the Christian’s daily experience. The God who freely declares a person righteous through faith in Christ commands that the believer progress in holiness of life. In God’s plan, a growth in holiness should accompany believing. God graciously provides the spiritual resources to enable Christians to be “partakers of the divine nature” (2 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOLINESS<\/h3>\n<p>Chief attribute of God and a quality to be developed in his people. “Holiness” and the adjective “holy” occur more than 900 times in the Bible. The primary OT word for holiness means “to cut” or “to separate.” Fundamentally, holiness is a cutting off or separation from what is unclean and a consecration to what is pure.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, holiness as applied to God signifies his transcendence over creation and the moral perfection of his character. God is holy in that he is utterly distinct from his creation and exercises sovereign majesty and power over it. His holiness is especially prominent in the Psalms (47:8) and the Prophets (Ez 39:7), where “holiness” emerges as a synonym for Israel’s God. Thus, Scripture ascribes to God the title “Holy” (Is 57:15), “Holy One” (Jb 6:10; Is 43:15), and “Holy One of Israel” (Ps 89:18; Is 60:14; Jer 50:29).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT God’s holiness denotes that the Lord is separate from all that is evil and defiled (cf. Jb 34:10). His holy character is the standard of absolute moral perfection (Is 5:16). God’s holiness—his transcendent majesty and the purity of his character—are skillfully balanced in Psalm 99. Verses 1 through 3 portray God’s distance from the finite and earthbound, whereas verses 4 and 5 emphasize his separation from sin and evil.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT God demanded holiness in the lives of his people. Through Moses, God said to the congregation of Israel, “You shall be holy; for I the <span>Lord<\/span> your God am holy” (Lv 19:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). The holiness enjoined by the OT was twofold: (1) external, or ceremonial; and (2) internal, or moral and spiritual. OT ceremonial holiness, prescribed in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the OT) included ritual consecration to God’s service. Thus priests and Levites were sanctified by a complex process of ritual consecration (Ex 29), as were the Hebrew Nazirites, which means “separated ones” (Nm 6:1-21). Prophets like Elisha (2 Kgs 4:9) and Jeremiah (Jer 1:5) were also sanctified for a special prophetic ministry in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>But the OT also draws attention to the inner, moral, and spiritual aspects of holiness. Men and women, created in the image of God, are called to cultivate the holiness of God’s own character in their lives (Lv 19:2; Nm 15:40). In the NT the ceremonial holiness prominent in the Pentateuch recedes to the background. Whereas much of Judaism in Jesus’ time sought a ceremonial holiness by works (Mk 7:1-5), the NT stresses the ethical rather than the formal dimension of holiness (vv 6-12). With the coming of the Holy Spirit, the early church perceived that holiness of life was a profound internal reality that should govern an individual’s thought and attitudes in relation to persons and objects in the external world.<\/p>\n<p>The NT Greek equivalent of the common Hebrew word for holiness signifies an inner state of freedom from moral fault and a relative harmony with the moral perfection of God. The word “godlikeness” or “godliness” captures the sense of the primary Greek word for holiness. Another Greek word approximates the dominant OT concept of holiness as external separation from the profane and dedication to the service of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Because the NT writers assumed the OT portrait of deity, holiness is ascribed to God in relatively few apostolic texts. Jesus affirmed the ethical nature of God when he enjoined his disciples to pray that the Father’s name might be esteemed for what it is: “Hallowed be thy name” (Mt 6:9, <span>kjv<\/span>). In the book of Revelation the Father’s moral perfection is extolled with the threefold ascription of holiness borrowed from Isaiah: “Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty, who was and is and is to come” (Rv 4:8, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Is 6:3). Luke, however, contemplated God’s holiness in terms of the dominant OT concept of his transcendence and majesty (Lk 1:49).<\/p>\n<p>Similarly the holiness of Jesus Christ is asserted in the NT. Luke (Lk 1:35; 4:34), Peter (Acts 3:14; 4:27-30), the writer of Hebrews (Heb 7:26), and John (Rv 3:7) ascribe holiness to both the Father and the Son.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Spirit comes from God, discloses his holy character, and is the instrument of God’s holy purposes in the world, he also is absolutely holy (Mt 1:18; 3:16; 28:19; Lk 1:15; 4:14). The common title “Holy Spirit” underscores the ethical perfection of the third person of the Godhead (Jn 3:5-8; 14:16-17, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, holiness also characterizes Christ’s church. The apostle Paul taught that Christ loved the church and died for it “that he might sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word” (Eph 5:26, <span>rsv<\/span>). Peter addressed the church as a holy people in language borrowed from the OT. Separated from the unbelieving nations and consecrated to the Lord, the church is “a holy nation” (1 Pt 2:9; cf. Ex 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>But the NT more often discusses holiness in relation to individual Christians. Believers in Christ are frequently designated as “saints,” literally meaning “holy ones,” since through faith God justifies sinners, pronouncing them “holy” in his sight. A justified sinner is by no means morally perfect, but God does declare believers to be guiltless. Thus, although Christians at Corinth, for example, were plagued with numerous sins, Paul could address his erring friends as those who were “sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints” (1 Cor 1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Despite their problems, the Corinthian believers were “holy ones” in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, however, places great stress upon the reality of practical holiness in the Christian’s daily experience. The God who freely declares a person righteous through faith in Christ commands that the believer progress in holiness of life. In God’s plan, a growth in holiness should accompany believing. God graciously provides the spiritual resources to enable Christians to be “partakers of the divine nature” (2 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOLINESS Chief attribute of God and a quality to be developed in his people. “Holiness” and the adjective “holy” occur more than 900 times in the Bible. The primary OT word for holiness means “to cut” or “to separate.” Fundamentally, holiness is a cutting off or separation from what is unclean and a consecration to what is pure. In the OT, holiness as applied to God signifies his transcendence over creation and the moral perfection of his character. God is holy in that he is utterly distinct ...","summary_en":"HOLINESS Chief attribute of God and a quality to be developed in his people. “Holiness” and the adjective “holy” occur more than 900 times in the Bible. The primary OT word for holiness means “to cut” or “to separate.” Fundamentally, holiness is a cutting off or separation from what is unclean and a consecration to what is pure. In the OT, holiness as applied to God signifies his transcendence over creation and the moral perfection of his character. God is holy in that he is utterly distinct ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51098,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78724,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106350,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133976,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:16","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:16<\/strong> God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be <em>exalted by his justice<\/em>. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","summary_en":"5:16 God’s kingship is by definition just and righteous, and he will be exalted by his justice. At his exaltation, oppressors will be condemned (see 1:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":9387,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Desert","title_en":"Desert","content_ro":"<h3>DESERT<\/h3>\n\n<p>Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated area where wild beasts roam (Dt 32:10; Jb 24:5). The wilderness is also sometimes a place of pasturage (Ex 3:1; Ps 65:12; Jer 23:10; Jl 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often refers to wilderness regions (e.g., Gn 16:7; 21:20; 1 Sm 17:28; Mt 3:1; Mk 1:13; Lk 15:4). “Wilderness” is usually a place with no settled population (Nm 14:33; Dt 32:10; Jb 38:26; Prv 21:19; Jer 9:2) but is the dwelling place of wildlife: the vulture (Ps 102:6), wild asses (Jb 24:5), jackals (Mal 1:3), and ostriches (Lam 4:3). The term is also used figuratively (Hos 2:3; Jer 2:31).<\/p>\n<p>Another Hebrew term for desert, from a root meaning “to be arid,” refers to an infertile, desolate, bare steppe (Jb 24:5; Is 33:9; Jer 51:43). The plural form of that word describes topographical features of the desert plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63; Dt 34:1) and of Jericho (Jos 4:13; 5:10; 2 Kgs 25:5). With the definite article, that word (the Arabah) is the plain of the Jordan Valley and of the environs of the Dead Sea. The geography of that region contains sharp contrasts; the Jordan Valley, dense with a junglelike forest sheltering wild beasts (including lions in biblical times), gives way to the steppe lands of the Dead Sea area, which have always been desert.<\/p>\n<p>Two other Hebrew terms, meaning “waste” and “ruin,” refer to districts or settlements once inhabited but later devastated (Is 1:7; 5:9; 6:11; Jer 42:18; Ez 35:7). They are also used more generally for any desolate or waste place (Lv 26:31, 33; Jb 3:14; Pss 9:6; 109:10; Is 5:17; 44:26; 51:3; 52:9; Jer 7:34; Ez 5:14). One of them is also used once for the wilderness of the exodus (Is 48:21). Another word meaning “waste” (Ps 78:40; Is 43:19-20), when prefixed with the definite article, is a proper name for Jeshimon, a tract of land west of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:20; 1 Sm 23:24; 26:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the noun for “wilderness” and the adjective “desert” (Mt 3:1; 24:26; Lk 5:16; Jn 6:31; Acts 8:26) come from the same Greek root.<\/p>\n<p>The whole of biblical history has been interpreted as having a desert or wilderness motif. It can be seen in the realm of disobedient human experience outside the Garden of Eden; in the wandering of Israel during the exodus; in the struggle between pure faith in the desert and soft, idolatrous city life. The desert is viewed as a realm of demons and death (Dt 32:17; Is 34:13-14); its demonic wildness resembles the primeval chaos of the Creation (Gn 1:2; Jb 26:7). Several moving passages of Scripture deal with renewal of life in a desert valley (e.g., Ez 37), or with transformation of arid land into a productive garden (Is 41:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>The desert is also a place where God is close to his people (Dt 32:10-12), both watching over them and testing their obedience (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14-15). Finally, the desert is a place of refuge, cleansing, and consecration. In the Gospels the desert theme of the exodus recurs in the 40 days and nights in which Jesus was tempted in the wilderness (Mk 1:13; cf. Ps 91). The desert fathers of the early church and the hermits of the Middle Ages emulated the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist (1 Kgs 19:4-8; Mt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Negeb, Negev; Palestine; Wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DESERT<\/h3>\n\n<p>Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated area where wild beasts roam (Dt 32:10; Jb 24:5). The wilderness is also sometimes a place of pasturage (Ex 3:1; Ps 65:12; Jer 23:10; Jl 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often refers to wilderness regions (e.g., Gn 16:7; 21:20; 1 Sm 17:28; Mt 3:1; Mk 1:13; Lk 15:4). “Wilderness” is usually a place with no settled population (Nm 14:33; Dt 32:10; Jb 38:26; Prv 21:19; Jer 9:2) but is the dwelling place of wildlife: the vulture (Ps 102:6), wild asses (Jb 24:5), jackals (Mal 1:3), and ostriches (Lam 4:3). The term is also used figuratively (Hos 2:3; Jer 2:31).<\/p>\n<p>Another Hebrew term for desert, from a root meaning “to be arid,” refers to an infertile, desolate, bare steppe (Jb 24:5; Is 33:9; Jer 51:43). The plural form of that word describes topographical features of the desert plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63; Dt 34:1) and of Jericho (Jos 4:13; 5:10; 2 Kgs 25:5). With the definite article, that word (the Arabah) is the plain of the Jordan Valley and of the environs of the Dead Sea. The geography of that region contains sharp contrasts; the Jordan Valley, dense with a junglelike forest sheltering wild beasts (including lions in biblical times), gives way to the steppe lands of the Dead Sea area, which have always been desert.<\/p>\n<p>Two other Hebrew terms, meaning “waste” and “ruin,” refer to districts or settlements once inhabited but later devastated (Is 1:7; 5:9; 6:11; Jer 42:18; Ez 35:7). They are also used more generally for any desolate or waste place (Lv 26:31, 33; Jb 3:14; Pss 9:6; 109:10; Is 5:17; 44:26; 51:3; 52:9; Jer 7:34; Ez 5:14). One of them is also used once for the wilderness of the exodus (Is 48:21). Another word meaning “waste” (Ps 78:40; Is 43:19-20), when prefixed with the definite article, is a proper name for Jeshimon, a tract of land west of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:20; 1 Sm 23:24; 26:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the noun for “wilderness” and the adjective “desert” (Mt 3:1; 24:26; Lk 5:16; Jn 6:31; Acts 8:26) come from the same Greek root.<\/p>\n<p>The whole of biblical history has been interpreted as having a desert or wilderness motif. It can be seen in the realm of disobedient human experience outside the Garden of Eden; in the wandering of Israel during the exodus; in the struggle between pure faith in the desert and soft, idolatrous city life. The desert is viewed as a realm of demons and death (Dt 32:17; Is 34:13-14); its demonic wildness resembles the primeval chaos of the Creation (Gn 1:2; Jb 26:7). Several moving passages of Scripture deal with renewal of life in a desert valley (e.g., Ez 37), or with transformation of arid land into a productive garden (Is 41:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>The desert is also a place where God is close to his people (Dt 32:10-12), both watching over them and testing their obedience (Jer 2:2; Hos 2:14-15). Finally, the desert is a place of refuge, cleansing, and consecration. In the Gospels the desert theme of the exodus recurs in the 40 days and nights in which Jesus was tempted in the wilderness (Mk 1:13; cf. Ps 91). The desert fathers of the early church and the hermits of the Middle Ages emulated the prophet Elijah and John the Baptist (1 Kgs 19:4-8; Mt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Negeb, Negev; Palestine; Wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DESERT Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated...","summary_en":"DESERT Empty waste place, often arid, sandy, and incapable of sustaining vegetable life, as for example the Negev of southern Palestine. A desert frequently includes local areas where marginal life is possible. The most common Hebrew term for desert means “wilderness” and is perhaps related to a verb meaning “to drive,” as a shepherd drives sheep to pasturage. The Greek word commonly used in the NT and in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) implies an unenclosed, uncultivated...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":51099,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","summary_en":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51100,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","summary_en":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78725,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","summary_en":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78726,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","summary_en":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106351,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","summary_en":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106352,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","summary_en":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133977,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-19<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","summary_en":"5:18-19 What sorrow: The third threat of judgment was against mockers, who openly treated God’s authority with contempt.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133978,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18<\/strong> God’s <em>ropes<\/em> were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","summary_en":"5:18 God’s ropes were “ropes of kindness and love” for Israel (Hos 11:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":51101,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","summary_en":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78727,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","summary_en":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106353,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","summary_en":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133979,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:19","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:19<\/strong> The people challenged God to <em>hurry up and do something<\/em> to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb <em>hurry up<\/em> translates two Hebrew verbs: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">maher<\/span> (“be quick”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khush<\/span> (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name <em>Maher<\/em>-<em>shalal<\/em>-<em>hash<\/em>-<em>baz<\/em> (Isa 8:1). • God’s <em>plan<\/em> was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","summary_en":"5:19 The people challenged God to hurry up and do something to prove that he really exists and is in control of this world. The verb hurry up translates two Hebrew verbs: maher (“be quick”) and khush (“be speedy”). The same Hebrew words are used in the name Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Isa 8:1). • God’s plan was revealed to Isaiah. Little did the people know that God’s purposes would turn against them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64396,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"False Prophets","title_en":"False Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","summary_en":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92022,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"False Prophets","title_en":"False Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","summary_en":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119648,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"False Prophets","title_en":"False Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","summary_en":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147274,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"False Prophets","title_en":"False Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>False Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, many people doubted that God’s word through his true prophets would ever be fulfilled (see Isa 5:19). Others denied that anything would happen within their lifetimes. Might not the punishment that had so often been delayed be delayed a little longer?<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel prophesied that in the coming judgment upon Jerusalem, false prophets would be cut off so that people would no longer be confused about who the true prophets were (Ezek 13:8-9). There would also be no more delay to God’s judgment—the Lord was coming very soon to fulfill the words he had spoken (13:11). Everyone would see which words God had really spoken and which words the false prophets had conjured out of their own imaginations.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned of the presence of false prophets in the future (Matt 24:11-28), and his early followers encountered numerous false prophets (see, e.g., Acts 13:6-12; 2 Pet 2:1-3). Believers can often recognize false prophets by their incorrect teaching about Christ, which demonstrates that they are not operating under the Spirit of God (1 Jn 4:1-3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:1-5; 18:22; 1 Kgs 22:8-28; Jer 6:13-15; 14:13-16; 20:1-6; 28:1-17; 29:21-32; 50:6; Ezek 13:1-23; 22:28; Mic 3:5; 2 Cor 11:13-15; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 2 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","summary_en":"False Prophets The Bible tells of many individuals who set themselves up as prophets on their own authority. They had no true calling from God but nonetheless claimed to speak for him. Often it was hard for people to discern the difference between true and false prophets, especially since false prophets usually told them what they wanted to hear (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 22:10-14; Jer 28:1-4). Because of this difficulty, and the Lord’s merciful delay in bringing judgment upon his rebellious people, m...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":8666,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51102,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","summary_en":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78728,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","summary_en":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106354,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","summary_en":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133980,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:20","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:20<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • <em>evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet:<\/em> This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","summary_en":"5:20 What sorrow: The fourth threat of judgment was against a lack of integrity. • evil is good . . . dark is light . . . bitter is sweet: This twisted way of looking at life corrupts God’s holy order.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63211,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90837,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118463,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146089,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":51103,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","summary_en":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78729,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","summary_en":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106355,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","summary_en":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133981,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:21","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:21<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","summary_en":"5:21 What sorrow: The fifth threat of judgment concerned the folly of self-deception.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":12561,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Food and Food Preparation","title_en":"Food and Food Preparation","content_ro":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","summary_en":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38425,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wine","title_en":"Wine","content_ro":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","summary_en":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51104,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","summary_en":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78730,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","summary_en":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106356,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","summary_en":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133982,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:22","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:22-24<\/strong> <em>What sorrow:<\/em> The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","summary_en":"5:22-24 What sorrow: The sixth threat of judgment was against the indulgent lifestyle of the wicked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":5687,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bribery Bribe","title_en":"Bribery Bribe","content_ro":"<h3>BRIBE, BRIBERY<\/h3>\n<p>To give a person in authority something valuable in order to influence that person’s decision or action. Bribery was prohibited under OT law (Ex 23:8; Dt 16:19) and condemned by the prophets (Is 1:23; Am 5:12; Mi 3:11). Although Samuel denied that he ever took a bribe (1 Sm 12:3), his sons did not maintain the same standard (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between bribery and merely giving gifts was not always clear. Hence, giving something valuable is seen as a way to prevent unwanted conflict (Prv 21:14). Giving a gift is described (with neither approval nor condemnation) as a way to get ahead (18:16).<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, bribery is seen in the Bible as despicable. “The wicked accept secret bribes to pervert justice” (Prv 17:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Any system that legitimizes bribery gives the rich an unfair advantage in persuading leaders and judges; the poor find it difficult to get a fair hearing. Innocent people who are poor can be condemned; guilty people who are rich can offer a sizable bribe and go free (Ps 15:5b; Is 5:23). In extreme cases, bribes are said to have been used to hire killers (Dt 27:25; Ez 22:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BRIBE, BRIBERY<\/h3>\n<p>To give a person in authority something valuable in order to influence that person’s decision or action. Bribery was prohibited under OT law (Ex 23:8; Dt 16:19) and condemned by the prophets (Is 1:23; Am 5:12; Mi 3:11). Although Samuel denied that he ever took a bribe (1 Sm 12:3), his sons did not maintain the same standard (8:3).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between bribery and merely giving gifts was not always clear. Hence, giving something valuable is seen as a way to prevent unwanted conflict (Prv 21:14). Giving a gift is described (with neither approval nor condemnation) as a way to get ahead (18:16).<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, bribery is seen in the Bible as despicable. “The wicked accept secret bribes to pervert justice” (Prv 17:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). Any system that legitimizes bribery gives the rich an unfair advantage in persuading leaders and judges; the poor find it difficult to get a fair hearing. Innocent people who are poor can be condemned; guilty people who are rich can offer a sizable bribe and go free (Ps 15:5b; Is 5:23). In extreme cases, bribes are said to have been used to hire killers (Dt 27:25; Ez 22:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BRIBE, BRIBERY To give a person in authority something valuable in order to influence that person’s decision or action. Bribery was prohibited under OT law (Ex 23:8; Dt 16:19) and condemned by the prophets (Is 1:23; Am 5:12; Mi 3:11). Although Samuel denied that he ever took a bribe (1 Sm 12:3), his sons did not maintain the same standard (8:3). The distinction between bribery and merely giving gifts was not always clear. Hence, giving something valuable is seen as a way to prevent unwanted c...","summary_en":"BRIBE, BRIBERY To give a person in authority something valuable in order to influence that person’s decision or action. Bribery was prohibited under OT law (Ex 23:8; Dt 16:19) and condemned by the prophets (Is 1:23; Am 5:12; Mi 3:11). Although Samuel denied that he ever took a bribe (1 Sm 12:3), his sons did not maintain the same standard (8:3). The distinction between bribery and merely giving gifts was not always clear. Hence, giving something valuable is seen as a way to prevent unwanted c...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":51105,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","summary_en":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78731,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","summary_en":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106357,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","summary_en":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133983,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:24","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:24<\/strong> The image of rotting <em>roots<\/em> reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s <em>word<\/em> means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","summary_en":"5:24 The image of rotting roots reflects human transience (cp. 11:1; 27:6; 37:31). • To despise the Lord’s word means to ignore it, to live without regard for keeping it. Such an attitude toward God’s revelation leads to folly and ruin (Prov 1:30; 5:12; 15:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":17770,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51106,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","summary_en":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78732,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","summary_en":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106358,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","summary_en":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133984,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25<\/strong> <em>mountains tremble:<\/em> God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","summary_en":"5:25 mountains tremble: God’s wrath against sinners is often expressed as the shaking of the earth’s foundations (13:13; 23:11; 24:18-19; 29:6; 54:10). God’s appearance in judgment or salvation in natural phenomena such as smoke, darkness, lightning, and earthquake is called a theophany (see 6:1-4, 6; 13:13; Exod 19:18-19; Ps 18:7-15; Mic 1:3-4; Rev 8:5; 16:17-18; 18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":51107,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","summary_en":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78733,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","summary_en":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106359,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","summary_en":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133985,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:26","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:26<\/strong> The <em>signal<\/em> was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression <em>signal to distant nations<\/em> is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • <em>Distant nations<\/em> refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 <span>BC<\/span>) and on Judah (586 <span>BC<\/span>). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7). They would fiercely attack Israel and Judah, not letting up until God’s judgment was complete (5:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","summary_en":"5:26 The signal was a banner raised on a long pole and often placed on a high hill (see also 13:2; 18:3; 30:17). The expression signal to distant nations is common in Isaiah and might be a call for participation in battle (as here) or in salvation (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10). • Distant nations refers to the Assyrians and Babylonians, who served as instruments of God’s judgment on Israel (722 BC) and on Judah (586 BC). They were the wild “animals” (5:5) called in to trample the vineyard (5:1-7)....","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":8663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17767,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Isaiah","title_en":"Book of Isaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISAIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrated God’s dealings with the nation as a whole. The “disciples” mentioned in 8:16 probably assisted Isaiah in his ministry and may have helped him record the book that bears his name.<\/p>\n<p>When Isaiah saw the Lord in the famous temple vision described in chapter 6, he was willing to go wherever God sent him, even though he would face strong opposition (6:9-10). King Ahaz proved to be particularly resistant to Isaiah’s advice (7:4-17), and the people in general ridiculed his preaching (5:10-12; 28:9-10). During the reign of the godly Hezekiah, however, Isaiah’s ministry was much appreciated, and the king consulted him eagerly during times of crisis (37:1-7, 21-35).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is usually regarded as the greatest of the writing prophets. Some of the chapters in his book display an unparalleled literary beauty and make use of poetic devices and a rich variety of symbols. Chapters 40–66 contain many powerful passages that underscore the grandeur of the book. It is ironic, then, that many scholars attribute these chapters to a “second” or “third” Isaiah, unknown authors who wrote much later than Isaiah in connection with the Babylonian exile. Yet elsewhere in the OT, the names of all who wrote the prophetic books are preserved, and it would be most unusual for the Jews not to know who wrote such magnificent prophecy as chapters 40–66.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since many of the events recorded in chapters 1–39 took place during the ministry of Isaiah, most of these chapters were probably written by about 700 <span>BC<\/span> or shortly thereafter. The destruction of the Assyrian army in 701 <span>BC<\/span> represents the climax of the first half of the book, fulfilling the prophecy of 10:16, 24-34 and 30:31-33. In 37:38 Isaiah refers to the death of King Sennacherib, which did not occur until 681 <span>BC<\/span>. This means that some of the earlier chapters, along with 40–66, were probably written later, during Isaiah’s retirement years. A gap of several decades could help account for the change in subject matter that is found in the last half of the book. In these chapters Isaiah projects into the future as he addresses the Jews who would be in exile in Babylon about 550 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah’s public ministry occurred primarily from 740–700 <span>BC<\/span>, a period marked by the rapid expansion of the nation of Assyria. Under King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians moved to the west and south, and by 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Assyrian monarch was demanding tribute from Damascus and Israel. About 734 <span>BC<\/span> Rezin of Damascus (Syria) and Pekah of Israel organized a coalition to rebel against Assyria, and they tried to enlist the support of King Ahaz of Judah. But Ahaz refused to join, and when the kings of Damascus and Israel invaded Judah (see 7:1), Ahaz appealed directly to Tiglath-pileser for help (cf. 2 Kgs 16:7-9). With little hesitation the Assyrians returned to capture Damascus and to turn the northern kingdom of Israel into an Assyrian province.<\/p>\n<p>The puppet king Hoshea ruled over Israel from 732–723 BC but was imprisoned when he joined a revolt against Shalmaneser V, the new Assyrian king. Shalmaneser besieged the capital city of Samaria, which finally fell in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, spelling the end of the northern kingdom. Sargon succeeded Shalmaneser in 722 and had to quell a number of revolts. In 711 <span>BC<\/span> Sargon captured the Philistine city of Ashdod in a campaign that became the occasion of Isaiah’s prophecy of chapter 20.<\/p>\n\n<p>Even more important was the widespread rebellion that broke out with the accession of Sennacherib in 705 <span>BC<\/span>. King Hezekiah of Judah withheld his normal tribute payment, and by 701 <span>BC<\/span> Sennacherib had invaded Palestine to punish the rebels. The details of this campaign are given in Isaiah 36–37 and tell how city after city was captured by the Assyrians before the invaders stood at the gates of Jerusalem and demanded total surrender. With almost no hope of survival, Hezekiah nevertheless was encouraged by Isaiah to trust God, and in one night the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers, virtually wiping out Sennacherib’s army (Is 37:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>In an effort to befriend the enemies of Assyria, Hezekiah showed his treasures to envoys of the king of Babylon (39:1-4). Isaiah warned that someday the Babylonian armies would conquer Jerusalem and carry off those very treasures, along with the residents of the city (vv 5-7). Not only did Isaiah predict the Babylonian captivity of 586–539 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 6:11-12), but he also foretold that Israel would be released from Babylon (48:20). The Chaldean kingdom led by Nebuchadnezzar would be God’s instrument of judgment upon Judah, but they too would suffer defeat. One of Isaiah’s most remarkable prophecies was the naming of Cyrus, king of Persia, the ruler who would conquer the Babylonians in 539 <span>BC<\/span> and release Israel from exile (cf. 44:28). Along with the Medes (cf. 13:17), Cyrus won several important victories before sending his troops against Babylon. Isaiah hailed him as one anointed by the Lord to bring deliverance for Israel (45:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryUnity\">Literary Unity<\/p>\n<p>Largely because of the references to the later kingdoms of Babylon and Persia, the unity of Isaiah has been called into question. Chapters 40–66 move abruptly into the exilic period of 550 <span>BC<\/span>, almost 150 years after Isaiah lived. Moreover, the Servant of the Lord plays a prominent role in these chapters and the messianic king fades into the background. Brilliant poetic passages are found in chapters 40, 53, 55, and 60, demonstrating remarkable depth and power.<\/p>\n<p>Although these factors are sometimes cited as a sign of disunity, there are actually strong indications for unity in the book. For example, the historical interlude (chs 36–39) forms a hinge or bridge that links chapters 1–35 and 40–66. Chapters 36–37 complete the Assyrian section, and chapters 38–39 introduce the Babylonian material. Most of the linking chapters are written in prose, while the others (in some translations) are largely poetry. From the standpoint of verbal or stylistic unity, one can point to Isaiah’s favorite title for God, “the Holy One of Israel.” This title appears 12 times in chapters 1–39, and 14 times in chapters 40–66, but only seven times in the rest of the OT. A study of the famous Servant Songs of 52:13–53:12 reveals several ties with earlier passages, especially in chapters 1–6. The servant who is smitten and wounded (53:4-5) receives the same punishment as the beaten and injured nation of 1:5-6 (also cf. 52:13 with 2:12 and 6:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah is to the OT as the book of Romans is to the NT—a book filled with rich theological truth. Like Romans, Isaiah unveils the sinfulness of God’s rebellious people and his gracious provision of salvation. Because God is the Holy One of Israel (1:4; 6:3), he cannot ignore sin but must punish those who are guilty. Both Israel (5:30; 42:25) and the other nations (2:11, 17, 20) experience a time of judgment known as the Day of the Lord. In anger God raises his hand against his people (cf. 5:25), but ultimately his wrath is poured out upon Babylon and the nations (cf. 13:3-5; 34:2).<\/p>\n<p>With the fall of Assyria and Babylon, the Day of the Lord becomes a day of joyous victory (10:27; 61:2). According to Isaiah 63:4, it is the year of the Lord’s redemption. Earlier, Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt; now the return from the Babylonian captivity brings equal joy (52:9; 61:1). The ultimate redemption is to be accomplished through the death of Christ, and Isaiah 53 describes our Lord’s suffering and death in graphic terms. His ministry as the Suffering Servant is also introduced in 49:4 and 50:6-7; meanwhile, 49:6 states that the servant will be “a light for the Gentiles.” Looking ahead to the Second Coming, Isaiah predicts a messianic age of peace and righteousness. Nations will “beat their swords into plowshares” (2:4) and the “Prince of Peace” will rule forever (9:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the book God is pictured as the all-powerful Creator (48:13)—the sovereign One seated on a throne, high and exalted; the King, the Lord Almighty (6:1, 5). He controls the armies of the earth (13:4) and removes rulers as he wills (40:23-24). Before him, nations “are but a drop in the bucket” (40:15, <span>nlt<\/span>), and compared with him all idols are worthless and without power (41:29; 44:6). This is the God who shows his fury to his foes and his love to his servants (66:14).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Messages of Judgment and Hope (1–12)<\/h5>\n<p>In the opening chapter Isaiah characterizes Israel (including Judah) as “a sinful nation” that has rebelled against God. Although the people regularly bring offerings to him, their worship is hypocritical, an attempt to mask their oppression of the poor and helpless. The Lord encourages the nation to repent of their sin or face the fires of judgment. After this introduction, Isaiah turns to describe the peace of the messianic age in 2:1-4. The day will come when all nations will obey God’s word and live at peace. “The mountain of the <span>Lord<\/span>”—Jerusalem—will be raised up “and all the nations shall flow to it” (2:2-3, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the meantime, however, both Israel and the nations have exalted themselves against the Lord, and he will judge them in an awesome display of power. For Israel, God’s judgment will bring great upheaval, including the loss of its leaders. Defiant and ruthless, the rulers will face either death or deportation. Chapter 3 ends by denouncing the pride and vanity of the women of Zion; they, too, will suffer disgrace. After Jerusalem is cleansed of its sin, the remnant will enjoy the rule of “the branch of the <span>Lord<\/span>,” who will protect and shield his people (4:2-6).<\/p>\n<p>In 5:1-7 Isaiah presents a short song about Israel as God’s vineyard. The Lord did everything possible to ensure a yield of good grapes, but the vineyard produced nothing but bad fruit and had to be destroyed. Isaiah then pronounces six woes against Israel, and announces that the Assyrian army will invade the land. Against the backdrop of Israel’s sin, Isaiah (ch 6) gives an account of the vision through which he was called as a prophet. Overwhelmed by the holiness of God and by his own sinfulness, Isaiah thought he was ruined, but when he was assured that his sins were forgiven, he responded positively to God’s call in spite of the stubbornness of the nation to which he was sent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most stubborn individuals in all the nation was King Ahaz of Judah, and chapter 7 describes Isaiah’s encounter with this godless ruler. When Ahaz was threatened by Damascus and the northern kingdom, he refused to believe Isaiah’s promise that God would protect him. This was the occasion on which Isaiah gave Ahaz the sign of Immanuel (7:14). The “virgin” refers ultimately to Mary and “Immanuel” to Christ (Mt 1:23), but in the near fulfillment the child could be Isaiah’s own son Maher-shalal-hash-baz (Is 8:3). (<em>See<\/em> four interpretations of this passage in Virgin Birth of Jesus.) This name (meaning “swift to plunder and quick to spoil,” v 1, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) would be a sign that soon Judah’s enemies would fall; “Immanuel” signified that God would be with Judah (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). However, if Ahaz appealed for help to the king of Assyria, Isaiah warned him, Assyria’s powerful armies would one day invade Judah also (cf. 7:17-25; 8:6-8). The destruction brought by Assyria would plunge Judah into a time of famine and distress (8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the gloom and darkness associated with the Assyrian invasion would not last indefinitely, and 9:1-5 speaks of a time of peace and joy. Verses 6-7 introduce a child who would become a righteous King and would rule forever. This “Prince of Peace” is the Messiah, the “Mighty God” whose kingdom is described in 2:2-4.<\/p>\n<p>For the immediate future, however, both Israel and Judah will suffer the agony of war as punishment for their sins. God is angry with his people because they are proud and arrogant, and their leaders disregard the pleas of the poor and needy. Civil war and foreign invasion will crush the hapless nation (9:8–10:4). But once Israel has been judged, God will turn his hand against Assyria, the instrument he has used to judge other nations. Because of her string of victories, Assyria is filled with pride and is eager for more triumph. Yet even at the moment when Jerusalem is about to succumb, God will cut down the Assyrian army like a cedar in Lebanon and spare his people (10:26-34).<\/p>\n<p>After Assyria’s defeat, Isaiah describes the restoration of Israel and the powerful rule of the Messiah (ch 11). Both Jews and Gentiles will be attracted to Jerusalem to enjoy an era of peace and justice. Like David, the Messiah will have the Spirit of God resting upon him as he judges the wicked and protects the needy. To conclude these opening messages, Isaiah offers two short songs of praise that celebrate God’s past deliverance and his promise of future blessing (ch 12).<\/p>\n<h5>Oracles against the Nations (13–23)<\/h5>\n<p>Although Babylon is not the major power of the day, Isaiah begins his announcements of judgment with two chapters about the destruction of Assyria’s neighbor to the south. Babylon will eventually conquer Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 <span>BC<\/span>), but the Medes (13:17) along with the Elamites will capture Babylon (539 <span>BC<\/span>). In spite of the glory to be achieved by future kings of Babylon, God will bring their pomp down to the grave (14:9-10). The chapter ends with short prophecies against Assyria and the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>One of Israel’s oldest enemies was the nation of Moab, situated east of the Dead Sea. Even though it was a small country, Isaiah devotes two chapters to these descendants of Lot. Chapter 15 describes the extensive mourning that will overwhelm their cities. After a brief interlude urging the Moabites to submit to Israel and to her God (16:1-5), Isaiah notes that pride will lead to Moab’s downfall. Sounds of weeping fill the land as the vines and fields wither and are trampled.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 17 the fourth oracle is directed against Damascus and Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), probably reflecting their alliance against Judah about 734 <span>BC<\/span>. Both nations will face ruin, and Ephraim is condemned for abandoning the Lord, her “Savior” and “Rock” (17:10).<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 18 and 19 Isaiah turns to the south and addresses Ethiopia and Egypt, countries that had strong links from 715–633 <span>BC<\/span>, when an Ethiopian named Shabako became pharaoh in Egypt. But Egypt is plagued with disunity and suffers greatly at the hands of Assyrian kings. In spite of the supposed wisdom of her leaders, Egypt faces economic and political ruin (19:5-15). Yet the time is coming when the Egyptians will be restored and will worship the God of Israel. Along with Assyria and Israel, Egypt will become a blessing (19:24). Some interpreters think this is a prophecy of the salvation of Gentiles during the church age, but others relate this day to the peace of the millennial age (cf. 2:2-4; 11:6-9). For the immediate future, however, Isaiah announces that Assyria will take many Egyptians and Ethiopians into captivity (ch 20).<\/p>\n<p>A second oracle about Babylon (cf. 13:1–14:23) is contained in chapter 21, and Isaiah is staggered as he considers the impact of Babylon’s fall (21:3-4). When Babylon collapses, the world will know that her gods were powerless (21:9; cf. Rv 14:8; 18:2).<\/p>\n<p>Although it seems out of place among these oracles against the nations, chapter 22 condemns the city of Jerusalem. Like the nations, Jerusalem is full of revelry (22:2) but will soon experience the terrors of a siege. Since the people no longer rely on the Lord (v 11), he will hand them over to the enemy. Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness is exemplified by Shebna, a high official guilty of pride and materialism whose position will be taken by the godly Eliakim (vv 15-23).<\/p>\n<p>The last oracle (ch 23) is directed against the city of Tyre, which resisted capture until Alexander the Great conquered the island fortress in 332 <span>BC<\/span>. When Tyre fell, the economy of the entire Mediterranean world was shaken, for her ships had carried the goods of the nations far and wide.<\/p>\n<h5>Final Judgment and Blessing (24–27)<\/h5>\n<p>This section functions as a grand finale to chapters 13–23 in that it anticipates God’s judgment upon the nations and the inauguration of the kingdom of God. A defiled earth must bear its punishment (24:5-6) and even the forces of Satan face judgment (vv 21-22).<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 25 Isaiah rejoices over God’s great triumph and looks ahead to a day when death will be swallowed up and tears will be wiped from all faces (25:8). Israel’s longtime enemies, symbolized by Moab, will be laid low (vv 10-12), but Jerusalem will be a stronghold for the righteous (26:1-3). In 26:7-19 the nation prays that these promises will become a reality. Verses 20-21 indicate that the Lord will indeed respond, pouring out his wrath upon a sin-cursed earth and upon Satan himself (27:1). When that takes place, Israel will be a fruitful vineyard, a blessing to the whole world (27:2-6; contrast 5:1-7). First, however, Israel will have to endure war and exile, and then the remnant will return to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<h5>A Series of Woes (28–33)<\/h5>\n<p>Returning to his own historical period, Isaiah pronounces a series of woes upon both the northern and southern kingdoms, as well as one upon Assyria (ch 33). Chapter 28 begins with a description of the fading power of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Verses 7-10 portray the leaders of Judah in the same light; they have disregarded Isaiah’s message and are out of touch with God. Judgment is on the way, and their false preparation (vv 15, 18) will be of no avail. God will fight against Israel (vv 21-22), and even Jerusalem will be put under siege until God in his mercy intervenes (29:1-8). Because of their hypocritical worship, the people deserve to be punished, but in the future Israel will again acknowledge the Lord and be made physically and spiritually whole (29:17-24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 30 and 31 denounce Judah’s proposed alliance with Egypt in the effort to thwart Assyria. God wants his people to trust him, not their unreliable neighbors to the south. The Lord promises to protect Jerusalem (30:18; 31:5) and defeat the invading Assyrian army (30:31-33; 31:8-9). None can stand before his mighty sword.<\/p>\n<p>Continuing on this positive note, Isaiah goes on to emphasize the righteous rule of the messianic king in chapters 32 and 33. Zion will enjoy peace and security at last (32:2, 17-18; 33:6), a great change from Isaiah’s own time. In eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Judah the women might feel secure (32:9), but the Assyrian troops will devastate the crops and precipitate widespread mourning. However, the lamenting will soon end, as the prophet pronounces woe upon Assyria in 33:1. After Isaiah prays for the destruction of Assyria (33:2-9), God promises to take action (vv 10-12). Gone will be the enemy soldiers and officials, for the Lord will save his people and bring them justice and security.<\/p>\n<h5>More Judgment and Blessing (34–35)<\/h5>\n<p>This section forms a climax to chapters 28–33. Once more, cataclysmic judgment precedes a time of blessing and restoration. In chapter 34 Isaiah depicts a judgment of cosmic dimensions as he moves to a consideration of the last days. Heaven and earth endure the wrath of God that is poured out upon the nations, and verse 4 provides the basis for John’s description of the great tribulation in Revelation 6:13-14. Edom (like Moab; see Is 25:10-12) represents a world judged by the sword of the Lord in his day of vengeance.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 35, on the other hand, speaks of joy and restoration in a passage that pulsates with life. A blooming desert corresponds to the physical and spiritual age when God will come to redeem his people. Both the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian captivity and the second coming of Christ fit this glorious scene.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Interlude (36–39)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters form the hinge that connects the two halves of the book. Chapters 36 and 37 contain the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecies about Assyria’s collapse, and chapters 38 and 39 introduce the Babylonian captivity that forms the backdrop for chapters 40–66. In 701 <span>BC<\/span> King Sennacherib of Assyria demands the unconditional surrender of Jerusalem. He sends his field commander to address the people and try to gain their submission. With persuasive words, the commander tries to convince the city that surrender is the best policy. Amazingly the people do not panic, and King Hezekiah asks Isaiah to pray for the beleaguered city. The prophet does so and announces that the proud Assyrians will not triumph. Instead, they suffer a terrible disaster as the angel of the Lord strikes down 185,000 men.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 38 and 39 relate another crisis in Hezekiah’s life when he becomes desperately ill. Miraculously, God heals him, and Hezekiah praises the Lord for his gracious intervention. When the king of Babylon sends envoys to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery, Hezekiah foolishly shows these messengers his royal treasures. Isaiah solemnly announces that someday the armies of Babylon will capture Jerusalem, plunder the land, and take away these treasures.<\/p>\n<h5>The Return from Babylon (40–48)<\/h5>\n<p>The Babylonian captivity eventually comes, but Isaiah promises that it will end. God, the incomparably powerful Creator, is far greater than any king, nation, or god, and he will bring his people back to Jerusalem. To accomplish this return from exile, God raises up Cyrus, the king of Persia (41:2, 25). The Lord does not forget his people, and he encourages them to take heart and to rejoice.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 42 we are introduced to a person even more significant than Cyrus the Persian. Verses 1-7 (the first of four Servant Songs) describe the servant of the Lord, who will bring justice to the nations and will be “a light for the Gentiles” (42:6). This is the Messiah, and the redemption he will accomplish on Calvary (cf. ch 53) is greater than the release from Babylon. In light of the good news associated with the servant, Isaiah praises the Lord for punishing the wicked and rescuing his wayward people. Chapter 43 declares that nothing will stand in the way of Israel’s return, and the Lord will remember their sins no more. In fact, he will pour out his Spirit on their descendants (44:3).<\/p>\n<p>A God so great is far more powerful than any idol. In 44:6-20 Isaiah makes use of satire to show the worthlessness of man-made images. God alone has the power to create and to restore, and he will bring Cyrus on the scene to effect the release of the exiles and to begin the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Chapters 46 and 47 contrast the God of Israel and the idols of Babylon. When God raises up Cyrus, Babylon’s idols will be unable to save their nation, and the queen of kingdoms (47:5) will collapse along with her sorcerers and astrologers. The final chapter in this section (ch 48) restates God’s purpose of gaining release of the Israelites from Babylon through his chosen ally, Cyrus of Persia.<\/p>\n<h5>Salvation through the Servant of the Lord (49–57)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 49–53 contain the final three Servant Songs (cf. also 42:1-7), culminating in the death of the servant for the sins of the world (52:13–53:12). In the second Servant Song (49:1-7), Isaiah describes the call and ministry of the servant, noting that he will face strong opposition as he accomplishes salvation for Israel and the nations. The rest of chapter 49 deals primarily with the way God will bring Israel back from exile. Soon the land will be filled with a mighty throng (vv 19-21), and the Gentiles will acknowledge Israel and her God (vv 22-23).<\/p>\n<p>Although Israel has fully deserved the exile because of her sins (50:1-3), the suffering endured by the servant (vv 4-11; the third Servant Song) is wholly undeserved. The beating and mocking of verse 6 are prophetic of Christ’s experience (cf. Mt 27:26, 30; Mk 15:19). In verses 10-11 of Isaiah 50 the whole nation is challenged to trust in the Lord, as the servant did. There is, in fact, a believing remnant who obey the Lord (51:1-8), and the Lord promises that he will restore them to their homeland. Israel has drunk the cup of God’s wrath (vv 17, 22), but the good news of release from exile causes even the ruins of Jerusalem to burst into songs of joy (52:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the best news of all is salvation from sin; the final Servant Song (52:13–53:12) tells how Christ wins freedom for those held in bondage to sin. In this brief passage we learn how Christ suffers rejection (53:3) and even disfigurement (52:14). Led like a lamb to the slaughter (53:7), he carries our sins in his body as he dies in ignominy. The people think he is suffering for his own sins (v 4), but he is “pierced” and “crushed for our iniquities” (v 5). The first and last paragraphs of this section (52:13-15; 53:10-12) state that through his suffering the servant is highly exalted. What seems like a terrible defeat is actually victory over death and Satan and brings salvation for many.<\/p>\n<p>As a direct result of the servant’s death, great joy comes to all people. In chapter 54 this joy is reflected in Jerusalem’s new status as the Lord’s wife. Her descendants will be numerous and eager to learn from the Lord. For the first time the plural “servants of the <span>Lord<\/span>” appears (54:17), apparently including all believers, whether Jew or Gentile (cf. 65:8-9, 13-15). Joy and prosperity also characterize chapter 55, an invitation to a great spiritual banquet. All people are urged to turn to the Lord who keeps his promises to Israel. In 56:1-8, foreigners are invited to come to God’s “holy mountain” in Jerusalem, for the temple will be a house of prayer for all the nations (56:7; cf. Mt 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>Believing Gentiles are contrasted sharply with unbelieving Jews, and in 56:9–57:13 Isaiah returns again to the theme of judgment. Israel suffers because her leaders are wicked and because the people are guilty of idolatry. Spiritual healing is available, but unless individuals repent, they cannot be part of the remnant who will return from exile and enjoy peace in the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Ultimate Blessing and Final Judgment (58–66)<\/h5>\n<p>The last nine chapters of Isaiah emphasize redemption and glory, but the reality of judgment is also very much in evidence. In fact, chapters 58 and 59 bemoan the sins of Israel. The people are hypocritical in their worship; they are selfish and fail to keep the Sabbath. Lying, oppression, and murder separate the people from God. When Isaiah openly confesses these sins (59:12-13), the Lord suddenly takes action on behalf of his people. Like a mighty warrior, he rescues the believing remnant from Babylon and brings them back to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 60 the glory and wealth of Jerusalem reach new heights. Both the city and the sanctuary are adorned with splendor, matching the prosperity of Solomon’s reign. Just as the nations treated Solomon with honor, so earth’s leaders will assist and strengthen the returning exiles. While it is true that the Persian government did help the Jews repeatedly, the conditions described here will have their ultimate fulfillment during the Millennium and in connection with the new Jerusalem (cf. Rv 21:23; 22:5). The ancient ruins will be rebuilt (Is 61:4), and the Lord will fulfill the covenant made with Abraham and David (Is 61:8; cf. Gn 12:1-3; Is 55:3). Jerusalem will be the city of the holy people, the redeemed of the Lord (Is 62:12), and the Lord will take delight in her (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In order to accomplish salvation for his people, God will have to judge the ungodly first. The great trampling of the winepress (63:2-3) graphically portrays the judgment process and is linked with the Day of the Lord (cf. 13:3; 34:2). Since God has promised to intervene on behalf of his people, Isaiah prays for the realization of that promise (63:7–64:12). He recalls God’s faithfulness in the past and pleads that he will again have mercy upon his suffering people.<\/p>\n<p>The answer to Isaiah’s prayer is found in chapter 65. God does promise to give the Holy Land back to his servants, to those who worship him and obey him. But for that segment of the nation that continues in its obstinacy, God promises anguish and destruction. The ultimate joy of God’s servants is contained in a description of new heavens and a new earth (65:17-25). Peace, long life, and prosperity will be among the blessings enjoyed in an era that seems to combine features of the Millennium and the eternal state (cf. ch 60).<\/p>\n<p>In a fitting summary, chapter 66 ties together the themes of salvation and judgment. God will comfort Jerusalem and abundantly bless her, but sinners are the objects of his wrath. Those who honor him will endure forever, but those who rebel will suffer everlasting rejection.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Isaiah (Person); Israel, History of; Messiah; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Servant of the Lord; Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","summary_en":"ISAIAH, Book of Preview • Author • Date • Background • Literary Unity • Theological Teaching • Content Author The prophet Isaiah, whose name means “the Lord saves,” lived and ministered in Jerusalem. Because of his repeated contact with the kings of Judah, some scholars believed that Isaiah was related to the royal family, but this is not certain. According to chapters 7 and 8, Isaiah was married and had at least two sons, Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, whose symbolic names illustrat...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34174,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sea","title_en":"Sea","content_ro":"<h3>SEA<\/h3>\n<p>A great body of salty water covering much of the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The seas are mentioned in the very beginning of the Bible. In Genesis 1:1-2 we read that in the beginning all was shapeless, empty, and dark, “and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.” Then God spoke and out of the chaos came order. Thus the voice of the Lord is powerful over all the waters of chaos. Psalm 29 celebrates this. From the account of the Creation in Genesis 1, two things stand out: (1) that the sea, like everything else in earth and heaven, was created by God; and (2) that by the word of God division was made between sea and land. These two facts are amplified in the Bible in a number of ways. Psalm 33:7 speaks of how “He made the oceans, pouring them into his vast reservoirs.” Eloquently, God’s ordaining of the limits of sea and land is expressed in the words of the Lord to Job: “Who shut in the sea with doors, when it burst forth from the womb; . . . and prescribed bounds for it, and set bars and doors, and said, ‘Thus far shall you come, and no farther, and here shall your proud waves be stayed’?” (Jb 38:8-11, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God’s control over the waters of the sea is described when the Bible says that God “trampled the waves of the sea” (Job 9:8). So in his life on earth, Jesus, the God-man, walked on the sea (Mk 6:48). He also stilled the storm, so that the disciples in awe and wonder asked, “Who then is this, that even wind and sea obey him?” (Mk 4:41).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people had a healthy respect for the sea and its power. Perhaps because of the lack of good natural harbors, and because they did not control the coastline for much of their history, they were not a seafaring people like the Phoenicians. It is only in the time of Solomon that we read of their having a fleet of their own (1 Kgs 9:26). The restless sea was to them a picture of the wicked (Is 57:20). “Breakers rolling upon a beach” (Is 17:13) or “the roaring of the sea” (5:30) made them think of forces able to do incalculable harm to men. In Daniel 7:3 and Revelation 13:1, powers hostile to God are pictured as beasts coming up out of the sea.<\/p>\n<p>Yet, as we have seen, God controls the seas. He is able to rescue those who trust in him “out of many waters” (Ps 18:16). He is able to protect those who go out into the seas (107:23-31). It was always remembered that God had made a way in the sea for his people to pass when they came out of Egypt (Ex 15:19). Psalmists (Pss 74:13; 77:16; 78:13; 106:9) and prophets alike (e.g., Is 43:16-17) recalled this. <em>See<\/em> Dead Sea; Mediterranean Sea; Red Sea; Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SEA<\/h3>\n<p>A great body of salty water covering much of the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The seas are mentioned in the very beginning of the Bible. In Genesis 1:1-2 we read that in the beginning all was shapeless, empty, and dark, “and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.” Then God spoke and out of the chaos came order. Thus the voice of the Lord is powerful over all the waters of chaos. Psalm 29 celebrates this. From the account of the Creation in Genesis 1, two things stand out: (1) that the sea, like everything else in earth and heaven, was created by God; and (2) that by the word of God division was made between sea and land. These two facts are amplified in the Bible in a number of ways. Psalm 33:7 speaks of how “He made the oceans, pouring them into his vast reservoirs.” Eloquently, God’s ordaining of the limits of sea and land is expressed in the words of the Lord to Job: “Who shut in the sea with doors, when it burst forth from the womb; . . . and prescribed bounds for it, and set bars and doors, and said, ‘Thus far shall you come, and no farther, and here shall your proud waves be stayed’?” (Jb 38:8-11, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God’s control over the waters of the sea is described when the Bible says that God “trampled the waves of the sea” (Job 9:8). So in his life on earth, Jesus, the God-man, walked on the sea (Mk 6:48). He also stilled the storm, so that the disciples in awe and wonder asked, “Who then is this, that even wind and sea obey him?” (Mk 4:41).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people had a healthy respect for the sea and its power. Perhaps because of the lack of good natural harbors, and because they did not control the coastline for much of their history, they were not a seafaring people like the Phoenicians. It is only in the time of Solomon that we read of their having a fleet of their own (1 Kgs 9:26). The restless sea was to them a picture of the wicked (Is 57:20). “Breakers rolling upon a beach” (Is 17:13) or “the roaring of the sea” (5:30) made them think of forces able to do incalculable harm to men. In Daniel 7:3 and Revelation 13:1, powers hostile to God are pictured as beasts coming up out of the sea.<\/p>\n<p>Yet, as we have seen, God controls the seas. He is able to rescue those who trust in him “out of many waters” (Ps 18:16). He is able to protect those who go out into the seas (107:23-31). It was always remembered that God had made a way in the sea for his people to pass when they came out of Egypt (Ex 15:19). Psalmists (Pss 74:13; 77:16; 78:13; 106:9) and prophets alike (e.g., Is 43:16-17) recalled this. <em>See<\/em> Dead Sea; Mediterranean Sea; Red Sea; Sea of Galilee.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SEA A great body of salty water covering much of the earth. The seas are mentioned in the very beginning of the Bible. In Genesis 1:1-2 we read that in the beginning all was shapeless, empty, and dark, “and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.” Then God spoke and out of the chaos came order. Thus the voice of the Lord is powerful over all the waters of chaos. Psalm 29 celebrates this. From the account of the Creation in Genesis 1, two things stand out: (1) that the sea, l...","summary_en":"SEA A great body of salty water covering much of the earth. The seas are mentioned in the very beginning of the Bible. In Genesis 1:1-2 we read that in the beginning all was shapeless, empty, and dark, “and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.” Then God spoke and out of the chaos came order. Thus the voice of the Lord is powerful over all the waters of chaos. Psalm 29 celebrates this. From the account of the Creation in Genesis 1, two things stand out: (1) that the sea, l...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":51108,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:30","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","summary_en":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78734,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:30","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","summary_en":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106360,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:30","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","summary_en":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133986,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Isaia 5:30","title_en":"Study Note: Isaia 5:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:30<\/strong> <em>day of destruction<\/em> (literally <em>that day;<\/em> see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, <em>darkness<\/em> represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","summary_en":"5:30 day of destruction (literally that day; see study note on 2:5-22). • In Old Testament prophecy, darkness represents the experience of God’s alienation, wrath, and judgment (see also 8:22), while light stands for his holy presence (see especially 60:2, 19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63192,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90818,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118444,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146070,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Isaia 5
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