1
Samson a plecat la Gaza; acolo a văzut o curvă, şi a intrat la ea.
2
S-a spus oamenilor din Gaza: ,,Samson a venit aici``. Şi l-au înconjurat, şi au pândit toată noaptea la poarta cetăţii. Au stat liniştiţi toată noaptea, şi au zis: ,,Când se va lumina de ziuă, îl vom omorî``.
3
Samson a rămas culcat până la miezul nopţii. Pela miezul nopţii, s-a sculat, şi a apucat porţile cetăţii cu amândoi stâlpii, le-a scos împreună cu zăvorul, le-a pus pe umeri, şi le-a dus pe vârful muntelui din faţa Hebronului.
4
După aceea, a iubit pe o femeie în valea Sorec. Ea se numea Dalila.
5
Domnitorii Filistenilor s-au suit la ea, şi i-au zis: ,,Înduplecă-l, şi află de unde-i vine puterea lui cea mare şi cum am putea să-l biruim, ca să-l legăm şi să-l slăbim, şi-ţi vom da fiecare câte o mie o sută de sicli de argint.
6
Dalila a zis lui Samson: ,,Spune-mi, te rog, de unde-ţi vine puterea ta cea mare, şi cu ce ar trebui să fii legat ca să fii biruit``.
7
Samson i-a zis: ,,Dacă aş fi legat cu şapte funii noi, cari să nu fie uscate încă, aş slăbi şi aş fi ca orice alt om``.
8
Domnitorii Filistenilor au adus Dalilei şapte funii noi, neuscate încă``. Şi ea l-a legat cu funiile acestea.
9
Iar nişte oameni stăteau la pândă la ea, într-o odaie. Ea i-a zis: ,,Filistenii sânt asupra ta Samson``! Şi el a rupt funiile, cum se rupe o aţă de câlţi când se atinge de foc. Şi astfel n-au ştiut de unde-i venea puterea.
10
Dalila a zis lui Samson: ,,Vezi, ţi-ai bătut joc de mine, mi-ai spus minciuni. Acum, te rog, arată-mi cu ce trebuie să fii legat``.
11
El i-a zis: ,,Dacă aş fi legat cu funii noi, cari să nu fi fost întrebuinţate niciodată, aş slăbi şi aş fi ca orice alt om``.
12
Dalila a luat nişte funii noi, şi l-a legat cu ele. Apoi i-a zis: ,,Filistenii sânt asupra ta, Samson!`` Iar nişte oameni stăteau la pândă într-o odaie. Şi el a rupt funiile de la braţe ca pe o aţă.
13
Dalila a zis lui Samson: ,,Până acum ţi-ai bătut joc de mine, şi mi-ai spus minciuni. Spune-mi cu ce trebuie să fii legat``. El i-a zis: ,,N-ai decât să împleteşti cele şapte şuviţe de păr din capul meu în urzeala ţăsăturii``.
14
Şi ea le-a pironit cu un cui de lemn în pământ. Apoi i-a zis: ,,Filistenii sânt asupra ta, Samson!`` Şi el s-a trezit din somn, şi a smuls cuiul de lemn din pământ cu urzeală cu tot.
15
Ea i-a zis: ,,Cum poţi spune: ,Te iubesc!` când inima ta nu este cu mine? Iată că de trei ori ţi-ai bătut joc de mine, şi nu mi-ai spus de unde-ţi vine puterea ta cea mare.``
16
Fiindcă ea îl necăjea şi-l chinuia în fiecare zi cu stăruinţele ei, sufletul i s-a umplut de o nelinişte de moarte,
17
şi-a deschis toată inima faţă de ea, şi i-a zis: ,,Briciul n-a trecut peste capul meu, pentrucă sânt închinat Domnului din pântecele maicii mele. Dacă aş fi ras, puterea m-ar părăsi, aş slăbi, şi aş fi ca orice alt om``.
18
Dalila, văzând că îşi deschisese toată inima faţă de ea, a trimes să cheme pe domnitorii Filistenilor, şi a pus să le spună: ,,Suiţi-vă de data aceasta, căci mi-a deschis toată inima lui``. Şi domnitorii Filistenilor s-au suit la ea, şi au adus argintul în mâni.
19
Ea l-a adormit pe genunchii ei. Şi chemând un om, a ras cele şapte suviţe de pe capul lui Samson, şi a început astfel să-l slăbească. El şi-a pierdut puterea.
20
Atunci ea a zis: ,,Filistenii sânt asupra ta, Samson!`` Şi el s-a trezit din somn, şi a zis: ,,Voi face ca şi mai înainte, şi mă voi scutura``. Nu ştia că Domnul Se depărtase de el.
21
Filistenii l-au apucat, şi i-au scos ochii; l-au pogorât la Gaza, şi l-au legat cu nişte lanţuri de aramă. El învârtea la rîşniţă în temniţă.
22
Dar părul capului lui a început iarăş să crească, dupăce fusese ras.
23
Şi domnitorii Filistenilor s-au strâns ca să aducă o mare jertfă dumnezeului lor Dagon, şi ca să se veselească. Ei ziceau: ,,Dumnezeul nostru a dat în mânile noastre pe Samson, vrăjmaşul nostru.``
24
Şi când l-a văzut poporul, au lăudat pe dumnezeul lor, zicând: ,,Dumnezeul nostru a dat în mânile noastre pe vrăjmaşul nostru, pe acela care ne pustiia ţara, şi ne înmulţea morţii.``
25
În bucuria inimii lor, au zis: ,,Chemaţi pe Samson, ca să ne desfăteze!`` Au scos pe Samson din temniţă, şi el a jucat înaintea lor. L-au aşezat între stâlpi.
26
Şi Samson a zis tânărului care-l ţinea de mână: ,,Lasă-mă, ca să mă pot atinge de stâlpii pe cari se reazimă casa, şi să mă razim de ei.``
27
Casa era plină de bărbaţi şi de femei; toţi domnitorii Filistenilor erau acolo, şi pe acoperiş erau aproape trei mii de inşi, bărbaţi şi femei, cari priveau la Samson, cum juca.
28
Atunci Samson a strigat către Domnul, şi a zis: ,,Doamne, Dumnezeule! Adu-ţi aminte de mine, Te rog; Dumnezeule, dă-mi putere numai de data aceasta, şi cu o singură lovitură să-mi răzbun pe Filisteni pentru cei doi ochi ai mei!``
29
Şi Samson a îmbrăţişat amândoi stâlpii dela mijloc pe cari se sprijinea casa, şi s-a rezemat de ei; unul era la dreapta lui, şi altul la stânga.
30
Samson a zis: ,,Să mor împreună cu Filistenii!`` S-a plecat cu toată puterea, şi casa a căzut peste domnitori şi peste tot poporul care era acolo. Cei pe cari i-a prăpădit la moartea lui au fost mai mulţi decât cei pe cari-i omorâse în timpul vieţii.
31
Fraţii lui şi toată casa tatălui său s-au pogorât, şi l-au luat. Când s-au suit înapoi, l-au îngropat între Ţorea şi Eştaol, în mormântul tatălui său Manoah. El fusese judecător în Israel douăzeci de ani.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":9224,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Delilah","title_en":"Delilah","content_ro":"<h3>DELILAH<\/h3>\n<p>Samson’s mistress, who betrayed him to his Philistine enemies (Jgs 16). Because Philistia held southern Israel in vassalage at the time (c. 1070 <span>BC<\/span>), Samson was chosen by God to begin the delivery of Israel. His success prompted the five Philistine rulers to offer Delilah a bribe if she would help capture him by discovering the secret of his enormous strength.<\/p>\n\n<p>Delilah was from the valley of Sorek, in the southeast corner of Dan’s territory, only a few miles from Samson’s home in Zorah. It is clear from Judges 14:1 that she was a Philistine, although the large reward she accepted (5,500 pieces of silver) implies that her motivations were other than Philistine loyalty. Her unhindered contact with men probably indicates that she was a prostitute.<\/p>\n<p>On her fourth attempt Delilah finally tricked Samson into revealing his secret. His strength was from God; his long hair, which signified that he was under a Nazirite vow (see Nm 6:1-8) and thus “set apart” by God for special service (Jgs 13:5), was never to be cut. Delilah lulled him to sleep, shaved his head, and delivered him (still unsuspecting) into the hands of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DELILAH<\/h3>\n<p>Samson’s mistress, who betrayed him to his Philistine enemies (Jgs 16). Because Philistia held southern Israel in vassalage at the time (c. 1070 <span>BC<\/span>), Samson was chosen by God to begin the delivery of Israel. His success prompted the five Philistine rulers to offer Delilah a bribe if she would help capture him by discovering the secret of his enormous strength.<\/p>\n\n<p>Delilah was from the valley of Sorek, in the southeast corner of Dan’s territory, only a few miles from Samson’s home in Zorah. It is clear from Judges 14:1 that she was a Philistine, although the large reward she accepted (5,500 pieces of silver) implies that her motivations were other than Philistine loyalty. Her unhindered contact with men probably indicates that she was a prostitute.<\/p>\n<p>On her fourth attempt Delilah finally tricked Samson into revealing his secret. His strength was from God; his long hair, which signified that he was under a Nazirite vow (see Nm 6:1-8) and thus “set apart” by God for special service (Jgs 13:5), was never to be cut. Delilah lulled him to sleep, shaved his head, and delivered him (still unsuspecting) into the hands of his enemies.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DELILAH Samson’s mistress, who betrayed him to his Philistine enemies (Jgs 16). Because Philistia held southern Israel in vassalage at the time (c. 1070 BC), Samson was chosen by God to begin the delivery of Israel. His success prompted the five Philistine rulers to offer Delilah a bribe if she would help capture him by discovering the secret of his enormous strength. Delilah was from the valley of Sorek, in the southeast corner of Dan’s territory, only a few miles from Samson’s home in Zorah...","summary_en":"DELILAH Samson’s mistress, who betrayed him to his Philistine enemies (Jgs 16). Because Philistia held southern Israel in vassalage at the time (c. 1070 BC), Samson was chosen by God to begin the delivery of Israel. His success prompted the five Philistine rulers to offer Delilah a bribe if she would help capture him by discovering the secret of his enormous strength. Delilah was from the valley of Sorek, in the southeast corner of Dan’s territory, only a few miles from Samson’s home in Zorah...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13276,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaza","title_en":"Gaza","content_ro":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","summary_en":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21348,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Judges","title_en":"Book of Judges","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","summary_en":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33701,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","summary_en":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45895,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","summary_en":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73521,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","summary_en":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","summary_en":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128773,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-31<\/strong> There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","summary_en":"16:1-31 There is nothing of judgeship in this last chapter of Samson’s checkered history. Samson effectively abandoned his calling and was eventually stripped of his gifting as well. Only in his final encounter, when he again turned to the Lord in prayer, did any of his heroic stature revive.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":13290,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gazites*","title_en":"Gazites*","content_ro":"<h3>GAZITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Residents of Gaza (Jgs 16:2). <em>See<\/em> Gaza; Gazathites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Residents of Gaza (Jgs 16:2). <em>See<\/em> Gaza; Gazathites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZITES* Residents of Gaza (Jgs 16:2). See Gaza; Gazathites.","summary_en":"GAZITES* Residents of Gaza (Jgs 16:2). See Gaza; Gazathites.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45896,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","summary_en":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73522,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","summary_en":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","summary_en":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128774,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2-3<\/strong> City <em>gates<\/em> of the period were locked <em>during the night<\/em> to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (<em>kept quiet<\/em>) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","summary_en":"16:2-3 City gates of the period were locked during the night to prevent passage in or out, and the men of the city, having seen the gates locked, probably slept (kept quiet) in one of the gate houses, thinking that they could resume their vigil in the morning.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":2611,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Architecture","title_en":"Architecture","content_ro":"<h3>ARCHITECTURE<\/h3>\n<p>Science, art, or profession of designing and constructing buildings, bridges, etc. Architecture is the practice of combining construction and art in order to produce “beauty with purpose.” The architect’s synthesis of creative imagination and technical skill produces structures of interest, unity, power, and convenience. When we look at a building, monument, or tomb, we are examining its art as well as its structure.<\/p>\n<p>Special types of architecture are mentioned in Scripture, including houses, structures in particular cities, and, of course, the temples. All were influenced by the empires that dominated Israel at the time. It is therefore important to examine the architecture of empires associated with Bible history to understand the architecture of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Sumerian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Egyptian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Assyrian and Hittite Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Greek Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Palestinian Architecture<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SumerianArchitecture\">Sumerian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>Architecture was first developed by the Sumerians, a people of non-Semitic origin. They may have settled on the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf a thousand years before moving northward to the mainland. From the beginning of their culture the Sumerians regarded architecture as an important artistic endeavor. It found its fullest expression in the building of temples. The Sumerian ziggurat, or staged tower, became Mesopotamia’s most distinctive contribution to architecture, both secular and sacred. The ziggurat has often been likened to a medieval European cathedral, the highest point of which might appear to be reaching upward to God as an expression of human religious aspirations. That, however, was not the concept the Sumerians held in building their shrines. For them, the ziggurat, standing on its mound or platform, represented a concentration of natural, life-giving forces. The god had already come down to his house, and it was the worshiper’s duty to commune with him there.<\/p>\n<p>By 2000 <span>BC<\/span> a Mesopotamian temple area commonly housed the ziggurat, several storehouses, shrines, workshops, and living quarters for priests. The ziggurat usually consisted of three stages: the inner walls of sun-dried mud brick, the outer walls of baked brick set in bitumen. The upper levels were reached by flights of stairs or ramps, and sometimes a small shrine to a local deity topped off the uppermost stage. In addition to devising decorated walls and columns, Sumerian architects discovered how to employ arches, domes, and vaults to give the impression of grandeur and space.<\/p>\n<p>Sumerian domestic architecture was quite mixed in style. Most city houses were two-story dwellings built on three sides of a square, with the opening facing away from the narrow streets. Homes of the wealthy might contain 20 rooms; some included servants’ quarters. Indoor bathroom facilities were connected by means of drainpipes to an underground cesspool. Many houses had a family burial vault in the basement. There seems little doubt that the Akkadians, Hittites, Egyptians, and Greeks all benefited in various ways from the architectural innovations of Sumer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EgyptianArchitecture\">Egyptian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians achieved the most lasting architectural forms ever attempted by any civilization, and much of their architecture has been preserved. Such forms included temples, tombs, and pyramids. Huge stones to build those structures had to be brought from distant quarries. The Egyptians made use of slave labor and built their structures in honor of their rulers.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding examples of Egyptian architecture are the pyramids, virtually all of which were constructed in the Old Kingdom period (c. 2700–2200 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sumerian principle of the recessed niche was employed to accommodate the enormous stresses of stone masonry. Without that technique it would have been impossible to construct such a huge edifice as the Great Pyramid, the estimated weight of which is almost six million tons (5,448,000 metric tons). The Great Pyramid is one of the most perfectly oriented buildings on earth, being just a few seconds of one degree short of true north-south orientation. Many of the huge blocks of stone were cut and fitted together so accurately that it is impossible to insert the edge of a sheet of paper between them. The pyramids were meant to serve as tombs for the remains of the persons who ordered them constructed, but the structures themselves have become monuments to human creativity.<\/p>\n<p>The major architectural style of the Egyptians was “post and lintel,” with horizontal crosspieces resting on columns. As a result, buildings of any size became a forest of columns. Wall surfaces were covered with carvings, paintings, and hieroglyphics. Temples were planned on a long axis with almost perfect symmetry. The structures seem designed for imperial pageants and other ceremonies staged to impress the people with the power and authority of their rulers.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AssyrianandHittiteArchitecture\">Assyrian and Hittite Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Assyrians followed the Sumerian pattern of temple construction but enlarged the ziggurats and added more stories. The great ziggurat at Borsippa was an outstanding example of seven-story temple construction. The foundation was about 272 feet (83 meters) square, and the building stood about 160 feet (49 meters) high. Each story was set back from the level beneath it in a terraced effect and painted with a different color of wash. Each story was intended to represent one of the planets. In accordance with later Sumerian practice the uppermost level had a small shrine built on its roof, where the god Nebo was thought to have taken up his residence. Many believe that the Tower of Babel, which God destroyed, was a ziggurat tower (Gn 11).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian royal palaces of the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span> were large and elegant, decorated with enormous bas-reliefs depicting the king busily occupied with a variety of activities. Assyrian art was at its height in that period, and meticulous attention to detail brought a virile character to Assyrian architecture. Large stone sculptures of protective animals were stationed at entrances to public buildings. Similar statues were a feature of Hittite architecture in Anatolia, the eastern part of Asia Minor.<\/p>\n<p>Hittite buildings excavated at Boghazkôy and elsewhere easily matched those of the Assyrians in extent and grandeur. Towering columns, long halls, and expansive rooms were typical of Hittite palace construction in the Bronze Age.<\/p>\n<p>Hittite temple design followed what was common in Babylonia, with several buildings grouped around an open court. One difference was that the main sanctuary was approached through a series of entrances or porches extending beyond the length of adjacent buildings. The design enabled small windows to be placed at the top of the projection in order to give additional light in the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GreekArchitecture\">Greek Architecture<\/p>\n\n<p>Architecture rose to great achievements in the Greek world. Many factors combined to produce architectural beauty that has lasted for centuries. Those factors included the climate, setting, government, and people. Perhaps the most important factor was the people, who seemed free to imagine and develop designs and structures that have continued to excite our imaginations to this day.<\/p>\n<p>The Greeks strove to attain beauty in their architecture. This worthy motive found its highest expression in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. In the time of Pericles (461–429 <span>BC<\/span>) the Parthenon and Propylea on the Acropolis were remodeled from earlier originals, and the Erechtheum was also built there. Subsequent temples in Athens included that of Hephaestus, which was a less graceful version of the Parthenon, and the shrine of Ares. Phidias, the sculptor who designed the Parthenon, was also responsible, with his students, for much of the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> statuary. Although the Sumerians had been the first to execute rather stereotyped freestanding stone statues, they had done so largely with theological considerations in mind. For the Sumerian sculptors, the statue had represented an individual standing before a god, ready to be judged. For the Greeks, however, the objective of good statuary was the most realistic and accurate reproduction of human anatomy possible, and like the Assyrians’, their sculptors studied anatomy. Eventually the Greeks became the world’s most proficient sculptors.<\/p>\n<p>Many Greek buildings featured appropriate combinations of structure and setting. For example, theaters were built on hills so that the structure could have tiers of seats and still have a beautiful background. Marble was used extensively. Buildings were placed so that shadows added to their beauty. All that structural beauty was seen by the apostle Paul when he visited the city of Athens, but “he was deeply troubled by all the idols he saw everywhere in the city” (Acts 17:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many of the most beautiful buildings, such as the Parthenon, were built in honor of pagan Greek gods. In response, Paul preached his famous sermon on the Areopagus (Mars Hill), a hill that overlooked the temples of Athens.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanArchitecture\">Roman Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Romans were great builders who left their mark on the architecture of the world. Several factors influenced Roman architectural styles. First was the fact that the Romans took over earlier empires and earlier forms of architecture. Some Egyptian influence was seen, but the Greek eye for beauty and use of marble was more important. Another factor was the Roman discovery of cement made from volcanic earth which, when mixed with lime, formed a mortar of great cohesion. Cement enabled the Romans to build masonry arches without supporting columns. The effect was a sense of pomp and majesty. The use of cement also allowed the Romans to build structures of more than one story, such as the Colosseum.<\/p>\n<p>Roman architects used central squares or public forums in the center of their cities. Around these were built public buildings, temples, shops, and porticoes. The central square contained arches and monuments commemorating victorious emperors. The Roman concept of municipal planning was copied throughout the Roman Empire, including Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The shortage of water in a number of countries over which the Romans ruled compelled them to devise means of transporting it overland. This led to the development of the aqueduct. Roman architects were faced with the problem of maintaining a sufficient degree of slope to enable water to flow by gravity. Cemented channels supported by stone arches provided much of the solution to the problem. The architectural design of aqueduct systems remained the same throughout the imperial period. Foundation piers were spanned by round arches. A stone channel was built on top of the archway, lined with cement, and frequently covered by a curved roof.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PalestinianArchitecture\">Palestinian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>For a generation the Israelites had been tent dwellers, living only semisedentary lives at best, without need of permanent structures of any kind. When the time came for them to settle down, they were handicapped by their lack of construction skills. Archaeological excavation at such sites as Shiloh, Bethel, and Debir have uncovered Israelite attempts to rebuild on earlier Canaanite foundations. Their standard of workmanship was noticeably inferior to that of the Canaanite builders, as exhibited especially in Canaanite royal cities. Until the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, Israelite buildings tended to be small and narrow, partly because the architects had not devised any means of roofing a dwelling other than by laying beams across its width and placing a flat covering on top. The first vaulted arch in Palestine was built in the Persian period, but it was so innovative that the conservative Judeans refused to adopt it as an architectural style. Only in the Roman period did the arch and vault gain acceptance, due largely to the influence of Herod the Great.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Architecture<\/h5>\n<h6>Cities<\/h6>\n<p>In the OT era, cities were built on hills or mounds and surrounded with a wall for protection. Generally houses were placed in a random fashion with winding paths or alleys connecting them. People unable to afford city life lived in villages that surrounded the city. They would work the nearby fields and in time of danger flee to the city for protection.<\/p>\n<p>Most essential to any city was an adequate water supply. For that reason cities were built on or near underground springs. Some cities used plastered cisterns and catch basins to collect rainwater to supplement the regular water supply. Underground springs were protected by stepped tunnels for access when the city was besieged.<\/p>\n<h6>Fortifications<\/h6>\n<p>During much of OT times the Israelites used the techniques of the middle Bronze Age to defend their cities. The central feature was a wall made of stone or brick, 25 to 30 feet (7.6 to 9.1 meters) high. The wall was sometimes made with an artificial slope and a ditch at the bottom to fortify it against enemy battering rams.<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelite monarchy, casemate walls were also built. These consisted of two parallel walls connected by a series of cross walls. The resulting rooms were then filled with dirt to give added protection against enemy battering rams (Ez 26:9). Sometimes walls 20 feet (6 meters) thick were built with overhangs so attackers could be subdued. The apostle Paul was let down off the wall of Damascus in a basket from a room in such a wall (Acts 9:25; 2 Cor 11:33).<\/p>\n<h6>Gates<\/h6>\n<p>Most city walls had two gates. One of these was for camel caravans, chariots, and larger vehicles; the other, on the opposite side of the city, was used for pedestrians, donkeys, and small animals. Many gates consisted of double doors (Is 45:1; Neh 6:1) made of wood and overlaid with bronze plating (Is 45:2). The doors were secured with horizontal bars of wood, bronze (1 Kgs 4:13), or iron (Ps 107:16) that fit into openings in the gateposts (Jgs 16:3).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the gates was important to the defense of the city. Often the road leading to the gate was laid out so that attackers, who carried their shields in their left hands, would have to face the wall of the city and its defenders on their right side. Sometimes the gate was part of a large tower (2 Chr 26:9). Occasionally, steps were constructed on the inside of the tower, so that sentinels could reach the top to stand watch (2 Kgs 9:17). At other times the gate was so positioned that it turned 90 degrees between the portals, in order to prevent enemy archers from making a straight shot through the gate.<\/p>\n<h6>Houses<\/h6>\n<p>An above-average Israelite house consisted of several rooms facing an open courtyard (2 Sm 17:18). The largest room was for the family, another was for the family’s cattle, and another was used as a general storeroom. Sometimes the walls were made of stones, with the joints filled with mud. Sometimes the inside walls were plastered with mud, although more prosperous homes had cypress or cedarwood. Floors were made of clay or polished plaster stones. The flat roofs were supported by beams and made watertight with wood or brushwood. An outside stairway gave access to the roof, and some people built roof chambers that in effect made a two-story house (1 Kgs 17:19). The flat roofs of houses provided additional sleeping and recreational space for crowded households. The Mosaic law required these roofs to be surrounded by a protective parapet to prevent people falling to their deaths (Dt 22:8).<\/p>\n<h6>Solomon’s Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Probably the most important piece of Israelite architecture was King Solomon’s temple. The building was located on the site where Abraham was supposed to have offered his son Isaac (Gn 22). It took seven and a half years to build and was notable for its beauty as well as its purpose. The plan of the temple was similar to that of the tabernacle, except that the dimensions were doubled and the height was tripled. The walls were made of stone overlaid with gold (1 Kgs 6:22), with gold also covering the ceilings and floor. The partition between the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place was made of gold-covered cedarwood. The entrance to the Holy of Holies consisted of a double door made of carved olive wood overlaid with gold. The doorway stood open but was veiled. Outside the temple were two courts, an inner court for the priests and an outer court for the people.<\/p>\n<p>Lack of constructional expertise in Israel compelled Solomon to hire Phoenician workmen. The result was a typically Phoenician structure, the ground plan of which closely resembled that of an eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Canaanite chapel excavated at Tell Tainat in Syria. Columns and porticoes were doubtless a feature of the temple of Solomon, though the precise function of the freestanding pillars named Jachin and Boaz is still far from certain. Carefully dressed masonry seems to have appeared in Israel initially in Solomon’s time; excellent specimens of hewn and squared stone have been recovered from Samaria. The Samaritan site, along with Megiddo, has also furnished interesting examples of a decorated pilaster capital that derived its design from Canaanite artistic representations.<\/p>\n<p>When Babylon overthrew Jerusalem and leveled the city in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the temple was plundered of its wealth and burned to the ground. After Israel returned from captivity, the temple was rebuilt, with the foundation being laid in 525 <span>BC<\/span>. However, that second temple was far less magnificent than Solomon’s and was in great need of repair by the time of King Herod of Judea (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Although OT tradition gives considerable prominence to the Solomonic temple and lauds its grandeur, the building was actually an adjunct to the royal palace, serving as a chapel. Only in the postexilic period was the temple freed from royal associations to become an independent shrine where people could observe the prescribed rituals. Both pre- and postexilic temples were quite small and narrow in their dimensions, their width being limited by the length of the wooden beams available for roofing purposes. The only way such a building could be enlarged was in the usual Near Eastern manner of attaching additional rooms to the exterior.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Architecture<\/h5>\n<p>The architecture of NT times consisted of Greek and Roman structures, since those rulers had most recently dominated Israel. The Greek cities were architectural models, containing planned streets, arches, theaters, public baths, temples, and a central marketplace called the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span><em>.<\/em> Jewish homes, however, continued to remain small, with flat roofs over rooms facing a courtyard.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman domination Herod the Great (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) built some remarkable structures, including aqueducts, cisterns, dungeons, palaces, and whole cities (e.g., Caesarea). His greatest work was the rebuilding of the temple, a remarkable structure that took 83 years to complete. It lasted in its completed state only six years before it was destroyed by Titus in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s temple managed to blend the old with the new. Though it appeared to embody the latest Hellenistic architectural fashions in its colonnades, marble columns, and facades, it was still firmly rooted in the traditions of Phoenicia. The Herodian structure was an enlargement, and to some extent a rebuilding, of the sixth-century <span>BC<\/span> temple. A series of courts and porticoes surrounded the reconstructed shrine, which was given an illusion of grandeur by means of an enlarged entrance. In the middle of that porch stood an enormous doorway that gave access to the much smaller inner door of the shrine itself. Unfortunately, nothing of the building itself survived the destruction of <span>AD<\/span> 70, leaving us almost completely dependent upon Josephus’s account. <em>See<\/em> City; Homes and Dwellings; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARCHITECTURE<\/h3>\n<p>Science, art, or profession of designing and constructing buildings, bridges, etc. Architecture is the practice of combining construction and art in order to produce “beauty with purpose.” The architect’s synthesis of creative imagination and technical skill produces structures of interest, unity, power, and convenience. When we look at a building, monument, or tomb, we are examining its art as well as its structure.<\/p>\n<p>Special types of architecture are mentioned in Scripture, including houses, structures in particular cities, and, of course, the temples. All were influenced by the empires that dominated Israel at the time. It is therefore important to examine the architecture of empires associated with Bible history to understand the architecture of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Sumerian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Egyptian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Assyrian and Hittite Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Greek Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Roman Architecture<\/p>\n<p>• Palestinian Architecture<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SumerianArchitecture\">Sumerian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>Architecture was first developed by the Sumerians, a people of non-Semitic origin. They may have settled on the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf a thousand years before moving northward to the mainland. From the beginning of their culture the Sumerians regarded architecture as an important artistic endeavor. It found its fullest expression in the building of temples. The Sumerian ziggurat, or staged tower, became Mesopotamia’s most distinctive contribution to architecture, both secular and sacred. The ziggurat has often been likened to a medieval European cathedral, the highest point of which might appear to be reaching upward to God as an expression of human religious aspirations. That, however, was not the concept the Sumerians held in building their shrines. For them, the ziggurat, standing on its mound or platform, represented a concentration of natural, life-giving forces. The god had already come down to his house, and it was the worshiper’s duty to commune with him there.<\/p>\n<p>By 2000 <span>BC<\/span> a Mesopotamian temple area commonly housed the ziggurat, several storehouses, shrines, workshops, and living quarters for priests. The ziggurat usually consisted of three stages: the inner walls of sun-dried mud brick, the outer walls of baked brick set in bitumen. The upper levels were reached by flights of stairs or ramps, and sometimes a small shrine to a local deity topped off the uppermost stage. In addition to devising decorated walls and columns, Sumerian architects discovered how to employ arches, domes, and vaults to give the impression of grandeur and space.<\/p>\n<p>Sumerian domestic architecture was quite mixed in style. Most city houses were two-story dwellings built on three sides of a square, with the opening facing away from the narrow streets. Homes of the wealthy might contain 20 rooms; some included servants’ quarters. Indoor bathroom facilities were connected by means of drainpipes to an underground cesspool. Many houses had a family burial vault in the basement. There seems little doubt that the Akkadians, Hittites, Egyptians, and Greeks all benefited in various ways from the architectural innovations of Sumer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EgyptianArchitecture\">Egyptian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians achieved the most lasting architectural forms ever attempted by any civilization, and much of their architecture has been preserved. Such forms included temples, tombs, and pyramids. Huge stones to build those structures had to be brought from distant quarries. The Egyptians made use of slave labor and built their structures in honor of their rulers.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding examples of Egyptian architecture are the pyramids, virtually all of which were constructed in the Old Kingdom period (c. 2700–2200 <span>BC<\/span>). The Sumerian principle of the recessed niche was employed to accommodate the enormous stresses of stone masonry. Without that technique it would have been impossible to construct such a huge edifice as the Great Pyramid, the estimated weight of which is almost six million tons (5,448,000 metric tons). The Great Pyramid is one of the most perfectly oriented buildings on earth, being just a few seconds of one degree short of true north-south orientation. Many of the huge blocks of stone were cut and fitted together so accurately that it is impossible to insert the edge of a sheet of paper between them. The pyramids were meant to serve as tombs for the remains of the persons who ordered them constructed, but the structures themselves have become monuments to human creativity.<\/p>\n<p>The major architectural style of the Egyptians was “post and lintel,” with horizontal crosspieces resting on columns. As a result, buildings of any size became a forest of columns. Wall surfaces were covered with carvings, paintings, and hieroglyphics. Temples were planned on a long axis with almost perfect symmetry. The structures seem designed for imperial pageants and other ceremonies staged to impress the people with the power and authority of their rulers.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AssyrianandHittiteArchitecture\">Assyrian and Hittite Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Assyrians followed the Sumerian pattern of temple construction but enlarged the ziggurats and added more stories. The great ziggurat at Borsippa was an outstanding example of seven-story temple construction. The foundation was about 272 feet (83 meters) square, and the building stood about 160 feet (49 meters) high. Each story was set back from the level beneath it in a terraced effect and painted with a different color of wash. Each story was intended to represent one of the planets. In accordance with later Sumerian practice the uppermost level had a small shrine built on its roof, where the god Nebo was thought to have taken up his residence. Many believe that the Tower of Babel, which God destroyed, was a ziggurat tower (Gn 11).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian royal palaces of the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span> were large and elegant, decorated with enormous bas-reliefs depicting the king busily occupied with a variety of activities. Assyrian art was at its height in that period, and meticulous attention to detail brought a virile character to Assyrian architecture. Large stone sculptures of protective animals were stationed at entrances to public buildings. Similar statues were a feature of Hittite architecture in Anatolia, the eastern part of Asia Minor.<\/p>\n<p>Hittite buildings excavated at Boghazkôy and elsewhere easily matched those of the Assyrians in extent and grandeur. Towering columns, long halls, and expansive rooms were typical of Hittite palace construction in the Bronze Age.<\/p>\n<p>Hittite temple design followed what was common in Babylonia, with several buildings grouped around an open court. One difference was that the main sanctuary was approached through a series of entrances or porches extending beyond the length of adjacent buildings. The design enabled small windows to be placed at the top of the projection in order to give additional light in the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GreekArchitecture\">Greek Architecture<\/p>\n\n<p>Architecture rose to great achievements in the Greek world. Many factors combined to produce architectural beauty that has lasted for centuries. Those factors included the climate, setting, government, and people. Perhaps the most important factor was the people, who seemed free to imagine and develop designs and structures that have continued to excite our imaginations to this day.<\/p>\n<p>The Greeks strove to attain beauty in their architecture. This worthy motive found its highest expression in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. In the time of Pericles (461–429 <span>BC<\/span>) the Parthenon and Propylea on the Acropolis were remodeled from earlier originals, and the Erechtheum was also built there. Subsequent temples in Athens included that of Hephaestus, which was a less graceful version of the Parthenon, and the shrine of Ares. Phidias, the sculptor who designed the Parthenon, was also responsible, with his students, for much of the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> statuary. Although the Sumerians had been the first to execute rather stereotyped freestanding stone statues, they had done so largely with theological considerations in mind. For the Sumerian sculptors, the statue had represented an individual standing before a god, ready to be judged. For the Greeks, however, the objective of good statuary was the most realistic and accurate reproduction of human anatomy possible, and like the Assyrians’, their sculptors studied anatomy. Eventually the Greeks became the world’s most proficient sculptors.<\/p>\n<p>Many Greek buildings featured appropriate combinations of structure and setting. For example, theaters were built on hills so that the structure could have tiers of seats and still have a beautiful background. Marble was used extensively. Buildings were placed so that shadows added to their beauty. All that structural beauty was seen by the apostle Paul when he visited the city of Athens, but “he was deeply troubled by all the idols he saw everywhere in the city” (Acts 17:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many of the most beautiful buildings, such as the Parthenon, were built in honor of pagan Greek gods. In response, Paul preached his famous sermon on the Areopagus (Mars Hill), a hill that overlooked the temples of Athens.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RomanArchitecture\">Roman Architecture<\/p>\n<p>The Romans were great builders who left their mark on the architecture of the world. Several factors influenced Roman architectural styles. First was the fact that the Romans took over earlier empires and earlier forms of architecture. Some Egyptian influence was seen, but the Greek eye for beauty and use of marble was more important. Another factor was the Roman discovery of cement made from volcanic earth which, when mixed with lime, formed a mortar of great cohesion. Cement enabled the Romans to build masonry arches without supporting columns. The effect was a sense of pomp and majesty. The use of cement also allowed the Romans to build structures of more than one story, such as the Colosseum.<\/p>\n<p>Roman architects used central squares or public forums in the center of their cities. Around these were built public buildings, temples, shops, and porticoes. The central square contained arches and monuments commemorating victorious emperors. The Roman concept of municipal planning was copied throughout the Roman Empire, including Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The shortage of water in a number of countries over which the Romans ruled compelled them to devise means of transporting it overland. This led to the development of the aqueduct. Roman architects were faced with the problem of maintaining a sufficient degree of slope to enable water to flow by gravity. Cemented channels supported by stone arches provided much of the solution to the problem. The architectural design of aqueduct systems remained the same throughout the imperial period. Foundation piers were spanned by round arches. A stone channel was built on top of the archway, lined with cement, and frequently covered by a curved roof.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PalestinianArchitecture\">Palestinian Architecture<\/p>\n<p>For a generation the Israelites had been tent dwellers, living only semisedentary lives at best, without need of permanent structures of any kind. When the time came for them to settle down, they were handicapped by their lack of construction skills. Archaeological excavation at such sites as Shiloh, Bethel, and Debir have uncovered Israelite attempts to rebuild on earlier Canaanite foundations. Their standard of workmanship was noticeably inferior to that of the Canaanite builders, as exhibited especially in Canaanite royal cities. Until the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, Israelite buildings tended to be small and narrow, partly because the architects had not devised any means of roofing a dwelling other than by laying beams across its width and placing a flat covering on top. The first vaulted arch in Palestine was built in the Persian period, but it was so innovative that the conservative Judeans refused to adopt it as an architectural style. Only in the Roman period did the arch and vault gain acceptance, due largely to the influence of Herod the Great.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Architecture<\/h5>\n<h6>Cities<\/h6>\n<p>In the OT era, cities were built on hills or mounds and surrounded with a wall for protection. Generally houses were placed in a random fashion with winding paths or alleys connecting them. People unable to afford city life lived in villages that surrounded the city. They would work the nearby fields and in time of danger flee to the city for protection.<\/p>\n<p>Most essential to any city was an adequate water supply. For that reason cities were built on or near underground springs. Some cities used plastered cisterns and catch basins to collect rainwater to supplement the regular water supply. Underground springs were protected by stepped tunnels for access when the city was besieged.<\/p>\n<h6>Fortifications<\/h6>\n<p>During much of OT times the Israelites used the techniques of the middle Bronze Age to defend their cities. The central feature was a wall made of stone or brick, 25 to 30 feet (7.6 to 9.1 meters) high. The wall was sometimes made with an artificial slope and a ditch at the bottom to fortify it against enemy battering rams.<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelite monarchy, casemate walls were also built. These consisted of two parallel walls connected by a series of cross walls. The resulting rooms were then filled with dirt to give added protection against enemy battering rams (Ez 26:9). Sometimes walls 20 feet (6 meters) thick were built with overhangs so attackers could be subdued. The apostle Paul was let down off the wall of Damascus in a basket from a room in such a wall (Acts 9:25; 2 Cor 11:33).<\/p>\n<h6>Gates<\/h6>\n<p>Most city walls had two gates. One of these was for camel caravans, chariots, and larger vehicles; the other, on the opposite side of the city, was used for pedestrians, donkeys, and small animals. Many gates consisted of double doors (Is 45:1; Neh 6:1) made of wood and overlaid with bronze plating (Is 45:2). The doors were secured with horizontal bars of wood, bronze (1 Kgs 4:13), or iron (Ps 107:16) that fit into openings in the gateposts (Jgs 16:3).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the gates was important to the defense of the city. Often the road leading to the gate was laid out so that attackers, who carried their shields in their left hands, would have to face the wall of the city and its defenders on their right side. Sometimes the gate was part of a large tower (2 Chr 26:9). Occasionally, steps were constructed on the inside of the tower, so that sentinels could reach the top to stand watch (2 Kgs 9:17). At other times the gate was so positioned that it turned 90 degrees between the portals, in order to prevent enemy archers from making a straight shot through the gate.<\/p>\n<h6>Houses<\/h6>\n<p>An above-average Israelite house consisted of several rooms facing an open courtyard (2 Sm 17:18). The largest room was for the family, another was for the family’s cattle, and another was used as a general storeroom. Sometimes the walls were made of stones, with the joints filled with mud. Sometimes the inside walls were plastered with mud, although more prosperous homes had cypress or cedarwood. Floors were made of clay or polished plaster stones. The flat roofs were supported by beams and made watertight with wood or brushwood. An outside stairway gave access to the roof, and some people built roof chambers that in effect made a two-story house (1 Kgs 17:19). The flat roofs of houses provided additional sleeping and recreational space for crowded households. The Mosaic law required these roofs to be surrounded by a protective parapet to prevent people falling to their deaths (Dt 22:8).<\/p>\n<h6>Solomon’s Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Probably the most important piece of Israelite architecture was King Solomon’s temple. The building was located on the site where Abraham was supposed to have offered his son Isaac (Gn 22). It took seven and a half years to build and was notable for its beauty as well as its purpose. The plan of the temple was similar to that of the tabernacle, except that the dimensions were doubled and the height was tripled. The walls were made of stone overlaid with gold (1 Kgs 6:22), with gold also covering the ceilings and floor. The partition between the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place was made of gold-covered cedarwood. The entrance to the Holy of Holies consisted of a double door made of carved olive wood overlaid with gold. The doorway stood open but was veiled. Outside the temple were two courts, an inner court for the priests and an outer court for the people.<\/p>\n<p>Lack of constructional expertise in Israel compelled Solomon to hire Phoenician workmen. The result was a typically Phoenician structure, the ground plan of which closely resembled that of an eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> Canaanite chapel excavated at Tell Tainat in Syria. Columns and porticoes were doubtless a feature of the temple of Solomon, though the precise function of the freestanding pillars named Jachin and Boaz is still far from certain. Carefully dressed masonry seems to have appeared in Israel initially in Solomon’s time; excellent specimens of hewn and squared stone have been recovered from Samaria. The Samaritan site, along with Megiddo, has also furnished interesting examples of a decorated pilaster capital that derived its design from Canaanite artistic representations.<\/p>\n<p>When Babylon overthrew Jerusalem and leveled the city in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the temple was plundered of its wealth and burned to the ground. After Israel returned from captivity, the temple was rebuilt, with the foundation being laid in 525 <span>BC<\/span>. However, that second temple was far less magnificent than Solomon’s and was in great need of repair by the time of King Herod of Judea (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Although OT tradition gives considerable prominence to the Solomonic temple and lauds its grandeur, the building was actually an adjunct to the royal palace, serving as a chapel. Only in the postexilic period was the temple freed from royal associations to become an independent shrine where people could observe the prescribed rituals. Both pre- and postexilic temples were quite small and narrow in their dimensions, their width being limited by the length of the wooden beams available for roofing purposes. The only way such a building could be enlarged was in the usual Near Eastern manner of attaching additional rooms to the exterior.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament Architecture<\/h5>\n<p>The architecture of NT times consisted of Greek and Roman structures, since those rulers had most recently dominated Israel. The Greek cities were architectural models, containing planned streets, arches, theaters, public baths, temples, and a central marketplace called the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agora<\/span><em>.<\/em> Jewish homes, however, continued to remain small, with flat roofs over rooms facing a courtyard.<\/p>\n<p>During Roman domination Herod the Great (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>) built some remarkable structures, including aqueducts, cisterns, dungeons, palaces, and whole cities (e.g., Caesarea). His greatest work was the rebuilding of the temple, a remarkable structure that took 83 years to complete. It lasted in its completed state only six years before it was destroyed by Titus in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s temple managed to blend the old with the new. Though it appeared to embody the latest Hellenistic architectural fashions in its colonnades, marble columns, and facades, it was still firmly rooted in the traditions of Phoenicia. The Herodian structure was an enlargement, and to some extent a rebuilding, of the sixth-century <span>BC<\/span> temple. A series of courts and porticoes surrounded the reconstructed shrine, which was given an illusion of grandeur by means of an enlarged entrance. In the middle of that porch stood an enormous doorway that gave access to the much smaller inner door of the shrine itself. Unfortunately, nothing of the building itself survived the destruction of <span>AD<\/span> 70, leaving us almost completely dependent upon Josephus’s account. <em>See<\/em> City; Homes and Dwellings; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARCHITECTURE Science, art, or profession of designing and constructing buildings, bridges, etc. Architecture is the practice of combining construction and art in order to produce “beauty with purpose.” The architect’s synthesis of creative imagination and technical skill produces structures of interest, unity, power, and convenience. When we look at a building, monument, or tomb, we are examining its art as well as its structure. Special types of architecture are mentioned in Scripture, inclu...","summary_en":"ARCHITECTURE Science, art, or profession of designing and constructing buildings, bridges, etc. Architecture is the practice of combining construction and art in order to produce “beauty with purpose.” The architect’s synthesis of creative imagination and technical skill produces structures of interest, unity, power, and convenience. When we look at a building, monument, or tomb, we are examining its art as well as its structure. Special types of architecture are mentioned in Scripture, inclu...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16041,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hebron (Place)","title_en":"Hebron (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEBRON (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n\n<li>1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range.<\/li>\n<p>Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000 feet (914 meters) above sea level and marks the southern end of the Judean highlands. From this elevation the land slopes down rapidly to the east, but gradually to the west and south. The soil is relatively fertile, and a variety of fruits (apples, plums, figs, pomegranates, apricots), nuts, and vegetables are grown easily. To the south is the Negev, where the grazing land is excellent. A large number of springs and wells dot the landscape and assure residents of an abundance of water.<\/p>\n<p>In OT times Hebron included Mamre, the place where Abraham built an altar to the Lord after parting from Lot (Gn 13:18). It was here, too, that he learned of the capture of his nephew Lot (14:12-16); and here that, years later, he entertained three angels and was told of the judgment soon to fall on Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died in Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah from Ephron the Hittite (Gn 23:8-9, 17; 25:9-10; 49:29-32; 50:12-13) in which to bury her. This cave is now within the walls of the modern city, and the famous mosque of Haram el-Khalil was built over it.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, spies were sent into the land. They began in the south and traversed the central highlands of Palestine from Kadesh-barnea through Hebron to Rehob (Nm 13:17-21). On their return they brought back evidence of the productivity of the land (vv 23-24). From Numbers 13:33 we know that giants (“sons of Anak”) lived in Hebron. The sight of these men filled ten of the spies with fear. Only Caleb and Joshua proved equal to the occasion. Because of their faith, they were promised a possession in the land, and Caleb was given Hebron (Jos 14:9, 13). The unfaithful spies died in a plague in the presence of the Lord (Nm 14:36-37).<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, Hebron is mentioned in connection with Samson. When trapped inside the city of Gaza, he carried off the gates and left them at Hebron (Jgs 16:3). Following the death of Saul, the first king of Israel, David was crowned king of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in Hebron (2 Sm 2:1). He made this city his capital, for it was more centrally located than Benjamin, and its position at the southern end of the mountain range removed it as far as possible from the 10 northern tribes that followed Ishbosheth, the son of Saul. It was far enough from the Philistines to the west and the Amalekites to the south to avoid notice, and it was also easily defensible. Hebron also lay at the junction of several important trade routes, and this ensured its prominence. Later, however, when David was made king over all Israel, he moved his capital to Jerusalem—an act that must have displeased the people of Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>When Absalom wished to obtain support for his claim to the throne, he initiated his revolt from Hebron (2 Sm 15:7-12). Following the death of Solomon, David’s son, the kingdom was divided. Rehoboam, fearing an attack by the Egyptians on his southern border, fortified Hebron (2 Chr 11:1-12). From this time onward the city disappears from the OT record.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation of the town of Ebron, in Joshua 19:28. <em>See<\/em> Ebron.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","summary_en":"HEBRON (Place) 1. City of antiquity still standing today. It was built on the southern end of the highlands that run north to south through the length of Palestine. In patriarchal times it was known as Kiriath-arba (Gn 23:2) and stood on the hill known as El Arbain. The modern city straddles both ridges of the mountain range. Hebron is situated 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem and less than two miles (3.2 kilometers) from Mamre, where Abraham spent much of his life. It is 3,000...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45897,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:3","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","summary_en":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73523,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:3","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","summary_en":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:3","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","summary_en":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128775,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:3","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:3<\/strong> Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide <em>gate<\/em> system and take it to the hills <em>across from Hebron<\/em>, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","summary_en":"16:3 Samson had to pick up the entire six- to twelve-foot-wide gate system and take it to the hills across from Hebron, a town about forty miles distant. Samson humiliated the Philistines but did nothing to defeat them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":41178,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68804,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96430,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124056,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33702,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","summary_en":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35941,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Valley of Sorek","title_en":"Valley of Sorek","content_ro":"<h3>SOREK, Valley of<\/h3>\n<p>Valley in which Delilah lived (Jgs 16:4). It began in the hill country of Judah, about 13 miles (20.9 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, and took a northwesterly course to the Mediterranean Sea. It is identifiable with the Wadi es-Sarar. The Danites attempted to settle this area but were driven out by the Philistines in the region by the Mediterranean. The town of Zorah, Samson’s birthplace, was near the head of the valley of Zorek, which provided the setting for his intrigues and the concentration of his activities as judge.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOREK, Valley of<\/h3>\n<p>Valley in which Delilah lived (Jgs 16:4). It began in the hill country of Judah, about 13 miles (20.9 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, and took a northwesterly course to the Mediterranean Sea. It is identifiable with the Wadi es-Sarar. The Danites attempted to settle this area but were driven out by the Philistines in the region by the Mediterranean. The town of Zorah, Samson’s birthplace, was near the head of the valley of Zorek, which provided the setting for his intrigues and the concentration of his activities as judge.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOREK, Valley of Valley in which Delilah lived (Jgs 16:4). It began in the hill country of Judah, about 13 miles (20.9 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, and took a northwesterly course to the Mediterranean Sea. It is identifiable with the Wadi es-Sarar. The Danites attempted to settle this area but were driven out by the Philistines in the region by the Mediterranean. The town of Zorah, Samson’s birthplace, was near the head of the valley of Zorek, which provided the setting for his intrigu...","summary_en":"SOREK, Valley of Valley in which Delilah lived (Jgs 16:4). It began in the hill country of Judah, about 13 miles (20.9 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, and took a northwesterly course to the Mediterranean Sea. It is identifiable with the Wadi es-Sarar. The Danites attempted to settle this area but were driven out by the Philistines in the region by the Mediterranean. The town of Zorah, Samson’s birthplace, was near the head of the valley of Zorek, which provided the setting for his intrigu...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45898,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","summary_en":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73524,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","summary_en":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","summary_en":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128776,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4-22<\/strong> Samson’s dissipation and defeat by <em>Delilah<\/em> the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","summary_en":"16:4-22 Samson’s dissipation and defeat by Delilah the temptress has the universal appeal of great tragedy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":31008,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Power","title_en":"Power","content_ro":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","summary_en":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","summary_en":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","summary_en":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","summary_en":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128777,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the <em>rulers<\/em> (literally <em>lords<\/em>) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","summary_en":"16:5 The Philistine rulers knew that direct confrontation with Samson would not succeed, so they resorted to subterfuge. The generous offer by the rulers (literally lords) of the five Philistine cities (3:3) shows how seriously the Philistines took this matter.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":45900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","summary_en":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","summary_en":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","summary_en":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6<\/strong> The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","summary_en":"16:6 The desire for silver rather than self-preservation (cp. 14:15) seems to have motivated Delilah; she apparently did not reciprocate Samson’s love.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":45901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","summary_en":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","summary_en":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","summary_en":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:7","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:7<\/strong> <em>Bowstrings<\/em> were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. <em>Seven<\/em> was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","summary_en":"16:7 Bowstrings were commonly made of dried animal tendons or gut. Seven was a symbolic number, perhaps connected with the Philistines’ sense of magical power. Samson seems more at home in a Philistine cultural setting than in keeping his Israelite vows that bound him as a Nazirite.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":45902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","summary_en":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","summary_en":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","summary_en":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:11","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:11<\/strong> <em>Brand-new ropes<\/em> had already been tried (15:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","summary_en":"16:11 Brand-new ropes had already been tried (15:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":6928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Cloth Manufacturing*, Cloth","title_en":"and Cloth Manufacturing*, Cloth","content_ro":"<h3>CLOTH AND CLOTH MANUFACTURING*<\/h3>\n<p>Since antiquity, cloth has been made from such natural fibers as flax, wool, cotton, silk, and hair. Linen (spun from flax), wool, and sackcloth (woven from goat’s or camel’s hair) are the fabrics most frequently mentioned in Scripture. The Bible also refers to silk and cotton.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FibersforWeaving\">Fibers for Weaving<\/p>\n<h5>Linen<\/h5>\n<p>Flax was cultivated extensively in the Near East. In Palestine it flourished around the Sea of Galilee. The stalks were gathered into bundles and steeped in water, causing the fibers to separate from the nonfibrous stem. The bundles were then opened and spread out to dry in the sun. Rahab hid Hebrew spies on the roof of her house amid stalks of flax laid out to dry (Jos 2:6). After drying, the stalks were split and combed to separate the fibers for spinning and weaving into linen. Biblical references to flax include Exodus 9:31, Judges 15:14, and Proverbs 31:13.<\/p>\n<p>The type of fabric from which the priestly coats, girdles, and caps (Ex 28:40) were made is not stated, though the mention of linen breeches may imply that most, if not all, of the priestly garments were made of linen. The finest linen, worn by kings and nobles, served as a mark of honor or as a special gift. Joseph was given a garment of fine linen when he was made ruler of Egypt (Gn 41:42). When the Hebrews left Egypt at the time of the exodus, they took with them a high-quality linen and donated it to the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 35:6). A craftsman who was trained to work in fine linen came from Tyre to work for Solomon on temple hangings (2 Chr 2:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Wool<\/h5>\n<p>Wool was another extremely important fiber in the Near Eastern economy. Wool could come in any shade from creamy yellow to tan or black. Sometimes to obtain pure white wool a sheep was kept wrapped to prevent its fleece from being soiled. Preparation of wool was a home craft in antiquity (Prv 31:13; cf. Ex 35:25). Wool had to be washed thoroughly, dried, and then beaten to detach the fibers and remove the dirt before being carded and spun. Women spun their own yarn and wove garments for their families. Wool was the fabric of seminomadic, sheep-raising people; by contrast, the growing of flax required a more settled lifestyle.<\/p>\n<h5>Goat’s Hair<\/h5>\n<p>A thick cloth that was extremely warm as well as waterproof was woven from goat’s hair (Ex 35:23, 26). Clothing worn by the poor was often manufactured from goat’s or camel’s hair. That coarse-haired fabric (sackcloth) on occasions was worn next to the skin as a form of penitence (Neh 9:1; Dn 9:3; Mt 11:21), as a mourning vestment (Gn 37:34; 2 Sm 3:31), or even as a prophetic protest against luxurious living (Rv 11:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Cotton, Silk, and Gold Thread<\/h5>\n<p>The people of Judea would certainly have been aware of cotton during their Persian exile (beginning in 538 <span>BC<\/span>). Cotton is mentioned once in a description of elaborate hangings in the Persian king’s palace (Est 1:6). It is doubtful, however, that cotton was cultivated in ancient Palestine or even found there until after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Earlier in Israel’s history, part of the tabernacle fabric was woven with gold thread, made from thin sheets of beaten gold cut into fine wire strips (Ex 39:3). A wider type of gold wire with a flat surface was used to adorn expensive Palestinian and Syrian garments. An ancient hank of fine gold thread was uncovered during excavations at Dura on the Euphrates River.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spinning\">Spinning<\/p>\n<p>In Bible times a spindle was a slender rounded stick, tapered and notched at one end and weighted at the other end with a “whorl” of clay, stone, glass, or metal to serve as a kind of flywheel. The thread spun at the tapered end was wound on the spindle. Another thin stick, called a distaff, held the fibers to be fed onto the twirling spindle.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoomsandWeaving\">Looms and Weaving<\/p>\n<p>Weaving is the interlacing of “warp” threads stretched on a loom with threads of “weft” or “woof” passed from side to side over and under the warp. A primitive warp could be stretched around pegs or rods tied to a tree or roof beam and sometimes connected to the weaver’s waist.<\/p>\n<p>As weaving technique developed, three types of loom emerged: the horizontal ground loom, the vertical two-beamed loom, and the warp-weighted loom. In a horizontal ground loom the warp was stretched between two wooden beams fastened to the ground by four pegs. Traveling nomads could pull out the pegs and roll up the unfinished weaving on the beams. Delilah wove Samson’s hair on a horizontal ground loom (Jgs 16:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The vertical two-beamed loom had its warp stretched on a rectangular wooden frame. In addition to the two uprights and two warp beams, another beam was often used to maintain the tension of the warp, especially on longer lengths.<\/p>\n<p>The warp-weighted loom, also on a vertical frame, was worked from the top down. The lower edge was weighted with loom weights, often shaped lumps of clay.<\/p>\n<p>The degree of sophistication in weaving techniques in biblical times is seen in the specifications regarding fabrics for the tabernacle and its court. Hangings for the court were to be 50 yards (45.7 meters) long and probably a standard 2 yards (1.8 meters) wide (Ex 27:9-18). The tabernacle veil (26:31) and screen for the entrance (v 36) were to be of “blue and purple and scarlet stuff,” probably highlighted or embroidered with linen.<\/p>\n<p>Garments such as the tunic that Jesus wore were woven in one piece with the selvage (edge of the weaving) coming at the neck and hem, the areas of greatest wear. A tunic woven on a narrow loom would be constructed of three pieces.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ClothDyesandDyeing\">Cloth Dyes and Dyeing<\/p>\n<p>Like the fibers, the dyes used in antiquity were also of animal or plant origin. A red dye was obtained from the body of an insect. Purple came mainly from two kinds of mollusks found in many parts of the eastern Mediterranean seaboard. The purest shade of purple could be obtained from mollusks found on the shore at Tyre, so a large industry developed there (Ez 27:1-3,16). Purple, the most expensive dye, remained the distinguishing color of kings and nobles. The first Christian convert in Europe, Lydia, was a businesswoman who sold the costly purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Yellow was obtained from the petals and flower heads of the safflower. Saffron (orange-yellow) came from the stigmas of the crocus that grew extensively in Syria and Egypt. Green was usually concocted from a mixture of other dyes. In Hellenistic times woad, a plant of the mustard family, was cultivated in Mesopotamia for its blue dye. Indigo was grown in Egypt and Syria. Dyeing in antiquity was often carried out in large vats, pictures of which have been found in paintings and on pottery. The ruins of structures including vats have been excavated at some Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLOTH AND CLOTH MANUFACTURING*<\/h3>\n<p>Since antiquity, cloth has been made from such natural fibers as flax, wool, cotton, silk, and hair. Linen (spun from flax), wool, and sackcloth (woven from goat’s or camel’s hair) are the fabrics most frequently mentioned in Scripture. The Bible also refers to silk and cotton.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FibersforWeaving\">Fibers for Weaving<\/p>\n<h5>Linen<\/h5>\n<p>Flax was cultivated extensively in the Near East. In Palestine it flourished around the Sea of Galilee. The stalks were gathered into bundles and steeped in water, causing the fibers to separate from the nonfibrous stem. The bundles were then opened and spread out to dry in the sun. Rahab hid Hebrew spies on the roof of her house amid stalks of flax laid out to dry (Jos 2:6). After drying, the stalks were split and combed to separate the fibers for spinning and weaving into linen. Biblical references to flax include Exodus 9:31, Judges 15:14, and Proverbs 31:13.<\/p>\n<p>The type of fabric from which the priestly coats, girdles, and caps (Ex 28:40) were made is not stated, though the mention of linen breeches may imply that most, if not all, of the priestly garments were made of linen. The finest linen, worn by kings and nobles, served as a mark of honor or as a special gift. Joseph was given a garment of fine linen when he was made ruler of Egypt (Gn 41:42). When the Hebrews left Egypt at the time of the exodus, they took with them a high-quality linen and donated it to the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 35:6). A craftsman who was trained to work in fine linen came from Tyre to work for Solomon on temple hangings (2 Chr 2:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Wool<\/h5>\n<p>Wool was another extremely important fiber in the Near Eastern economy. Wool could come in any shade from creamy yellow to tan or black. Sometimes to obtain pure white wool a sheep was kept wrapped to prevent its fleece from being soiled. Preparation of wool was a home craft in antiquity (Prv 31:13; cf. Ex 35:25). Wool had to be washed thoroughly, dried, and then beaten to detach the fibers and remove the dirt before being carded and spun. Women spun their own yarn and wove garments for their families. Wool was the fabric of seminomadic, sheep-raising people; by contrast, the growing of flax required a more settled lifestyle.<\/p>\n<h5>Goat’s Hair<\/h5>\n<p>A thick cloth that was extremely warm as well as waterproof was woven from goat’s hair (Ex 35:23, 26). Clothing worn by the poor was often manufactured from goat’s or camel’s hair. That coarse-haired fabric (sackcloth) on occasions was worn next to the skin as a form of penitence (Neh 9:1; Dn 9:3; Mt 11:21), as a mourning vestment (Gn 37:34; 2 Sm 3:31), or even as a prophetic protest against luxurious living (Rv 11:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Cotton, Silk, and Gold Thread<\/h5>\n<p>The people of Judea would certainly have been aware of cotton during their Persian exile (beginning in 538 <span>BC<\/span>). Cotton is mentioned once in a description of elaborate hangings in the Persian king’s palace (Est 1:6). It is doubtful, however, that cotton was cultivated in ancient Palestine or even found there until after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Earlier in Israel’s history, part of the tabernacle fabric was woven with gold thread, made from thin sheets of beaten gold cut into fine wire strips (Ex 39:3). A wider type of gold wire with a flat surface was used to adorn expensive Palestinian and Syrian garments. An ancient hank of fine gold thread was uncovered during excavations at Dura on the Euphrates River.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spinning\">Spinning<\/p>\n<p>In Bible times a spindle was a slender rounded stick, tapered and notched at one end and weighted at the other end with a “whorl” of clay, stone, glass, or metal to serve as a kind of flywheel. The thread spun at the tapered end was wound on the spindle. Another thin stick, called a distaff, held the fibers to be fed onto the twirling spindle.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LoomsandWeaving\">Looms and Weaving<\/p>\n<p>Weaving is the interlacing of “warp” threads stretched on a loom with threads of “weft” or “woof” passed from side to side over and under the warp. A primitive warp could be stretched around pegs or rods tied to a tree or roof beam and sometimes connected to the weaver’s waist.<\/p>\n<p>As weaving technique developed, three types of loom emerged: the horizontal ground loom, the vertical two-beamed loom, and the warp-weighted loom. In a horizontal ground loom the warp was stretched between two wooden beams fastened to the ground by four pegs. Traveling nomads could pull out the pegs and roll up the unfinished weaving on the beams. Delilah wove Samson’s hair on a horizontal ground loom (Jgs 16:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The vertical two-beamed loom had its warp stretched on a rectangular wooden frame. In addition to the two uprights and two warp beams, another beam was often used to maintain the tension of the warp, especially on longer lengths.<\/p>\n<p>The warp-weighted loom, also on a vertical frame, was worked from the top down. The lower edge was weighted with loom weights, often shaped lumps of clay.<\/p>\n<p>The degree of sophistication in weaving techniques in biblical times is seen in the specifications regarding fabrics for the tabernacle and its court. Hangings for the court were to be 50 yards (45.7 meters) long and probably a standard 2 yards (1.8 meters) wide (Ex 27:9-18). The tabernacle veil (26:31) and screen for the entrance (v 36) were to be of “blue and purple and scarlet stuff,” probably highlighted or embroidered with linen.<\/p>\n<p>Garments such as the tunic that Jesus wore were woven in one piece with the selvage (edge of the weaving) coming at the neck and hem, the areas of greatest wear. A tunic woven on a narrow loom would be constructed of three pieces.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ClothDyesandDyeing\">Cloth Dyes and Dyeing<\/p>\n<p>Like the fibers, the dyes used in antiquity were also of animal or plant origin. A red dye was obtained from the body of an insect. Purple came mainly from two kinds of mollusks found in many parts of the eastern Mediterranean seaboard. The purest shade of purple could be obtained from mollusks found on the shore at Tyre, so a large industry developed there (Ez 27:1-3,16). Purple, the most expensive dye, remained the distinguishing color of kings and nobles. The first Christian convert in Europe, Lydia, was a businesswoman who sold the costly purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Yellow was obtained from the petals and flower heads of the safflower. Saffron (orange-yellow) came from the stigmas of the crocus that grew extensively in Syria and Egypt. Green was usually concocted from a mixture of other dyes. In Hellenistic times woad, a plant of the mustard family, was cultivated in Mesopotamia for its blue dye. Indigo was grown in Egypt and Syria. Dyeing in antiquity was often carried out in large vats, pictures of which have been found in paintings and on pottery. The ruins of structures including vats have been excavated at some Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLOTH AND CLOTH MANUFACTURING* Since antiquity, cloth has been made from such natural fibers as flax, wool, cotton, silk, and hair. Linen (spun from flax), wool, and sackcloth (woven from goat’s or camel’s hair) are the fabrics most frequently mentioned in Scripture. The Bible also refers to silk and cotton. Fibers for Weaving Linen Flax was cultivated extensively in the Near East. In Palestine it flourished around the Sea of Galilee. The stalks were gathered into bundles and steeped in water...","summary_en":"CLOTH AND CLOTH MANUFACTURING* Since antiquity, cloth has been made from such natural fibers as flax, wool, cotton, silk, and hair. Linen (spun from flax), wool, and sackcloth (woven from goat’s or camel’s hair) are the fabrics most frequently mentioned in Scripture. The Bible also refers to silk and cotton. Fibers for Weaving Linen Flax was cultivated extensively in the Near East. In Palestine it flourished around the Sea of Galilee. The stalks were gathered into bundles and steeped in water...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27680,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Numerology*, Numbers","title_en":"and Numerology*, Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","summary_en":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","summary_en":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","summary_en":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","summary_en":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13-14<\/strong> Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","summary_en":"16:13-14 Possibly Samson’s hair was woven into the fabric as weft on the loom’s warp, which was then tightened as in normal weaving.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":45904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","summary_en":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","summary_en":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","summary_en":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:16","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:16<\/strong> Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","summary_en":"16:16 Samson should have recognized his danger (cp. 14:17), but spiritual blindness had led to mental exhaustion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":27116,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nazarite*, Nazirite","title_en":"Nazarite*, Nazirite","content_ro":"<h3>NAZARITE*, NAZIRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person who was either chosen or consecrated for life or for a set period of time to complete a vow to God. The Nazirite (Nazarite) devoted himself to self-imposed discipline in order to perform some special service (Nm 6:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israelite tradition viewed the Nazirite as consecrated for life. Samson was the ancient hero of the Nazirites. He was “consecrated to God” through the vow of his mother (Jgs 13:5; 16:17) and remained under that vow to the “day of his death” (13:7). As long as Samson’s hair was not cut, he was able to receive the Spirit of the Lord and thereby perform amazing physical feats.<\/p>\n<p>Early Nazirite vows may have been associated with holy-war ceremonies. Combatants were consecrated to God and perhaps wore long hair (Jgs 13:5). The prophet Samuel did not cut his hair because of his mother’s vow that no razor would touch his head (1 Sm 1:11); the Septuagint adds that he was not to drink wine. The Nazirite vow of uncut hair was associated with being consecrated to God’s service and was especially common during the charismatic days of Israel’s early leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Naziritism developed into a ritual for those who sought to consecrate themselves temporarily to God. During the period of consecration, the devotee abstained from drinking wine, allowed his hair to grow, and avoided all contact with dead bodies.<\/p>\n<p>Uncut hair symbolizes strength and life. Perhaps this is the intended meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazir<\/span> when used to describe Joseph in the blessing of Jacob (Gn 49:26) and in the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:16). Vineyards that were not pruned in sabbatical or jubilee years were said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazir<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In later times, touching or coming in close proximity to a dead body was the most serious offense against the vow. Should anyone die in his presence, a Nazirite became impure. Such a contaminated Nazirite was expected to shave his “defiled head” on the day of cleansing. Next, he would bring two young pigeons to the priest, who would offer one as a sin offering. And finally, he must bring a male lamb for a guilt offering (Nm 6:9-12). Because of this defilement, the Nazirite had to begin his days of separation again.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of his period of separation he “desecrated” himself through a ceremony: he offered a sacrifice for sin and a communion sacrifice, then he shaved his head and burnt the hair. Thereafter, the Nazirite returned to his normal life and could drink wine (Nm 6:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>Paul completed a similar vow at Cenchrea in NT times (Acts 18:18) and, then again, along with four other Nazirites in Jerusalem (Acts 21:23-24). In the Talmud the period of time for the consecration was usually 30 days. It was customary for the wealthy to aid poor Nazirites in the purchase of their offerings. During the Maccabean period, the Nazirites were unable to complete their rites because the temple was profaned (1 Macc 3:49-51).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAZARITE*, NAZIRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Person who was either chosen or consecrated for life or for a set period of time to complete a vow to God. The Nazirite (Nazarite) devoted himself to self-imposed discipline in order to perform some special service (Nm 6:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Israelite tradition viewed the Nazirite as consecrated for life. Samson was the ancient hero of the Nazirites. He was “consecrated to God” through the vow of his mother (Jgs 13:5; 16:17) and remained under that vow to the “day of his death” (13:7). As long as Samson’s hair was not cut, he was able to receive the Spirit of the Lord and thereby perform amazing physical feats.<\/p>\n<p>Early Nazirite vows may have been associated with holy-war ceremonies. Combatants were consecrated to God and perhaps wore long hair (Jgs 13:5). The prophet Samuel did not cut his hair because of his mother’s vow that no razor would touch his head (1 Sm 1:11); the Septuagint adds that he was not to drink wine. The Nazirite vow of uncut hair was associated with being consecrated to God’s service and was especially common during the charismatic days of Israel’s early leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Naziritism developed into a ritual for those who sought to consecrate themselves temporarily to God. During the period of consecration, the devotee abstained from drinking wine, allowed his hair to grow, and avoided all contact with dead bodies.<\/p>\n<p>Uncut hair symbolizes strength and life. Perhaps this is the intended meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazir<\/span> when used to describe Joseph in the blessing of Jacob (Gn 49:26) and in the blessing of Moses (Dt 33:16). Vineyards that were not pruned in sabbatical or jubilee years were said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazir<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In later times, touching or coming in close proximity to a dead body was the most serious offense against the vow. Should anyone die in his presence, a Nazirite became impure. Such a contaminated Nazirite was expected to shave his “defiled head” on the day of cleansing. Next, he would bring two young pigeons to the priest, who would offer one as a sin offering. And finally, he must bring a male lamb for a guilt offering (Nm 6:9-12). Because of this defilement, the Nazirite had to begin his days of separation again.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of his period of separation he “desecrated” himself through a ceremony: he offered a sacrifice for sin and a communion sacrifice, then he shaved his head and burnt the hair. Thereafter, the Nazirite returned to his normal life and could drink wine (Nm 6:13-21).<\/p>\n<p>Paul completed a similar vow at Cenchrea in NT times (Acts 18:18) and, then again, along with four other Nazirites in Jerusalem (Acts 21:23-24). In the Talmud the period of time for the consecration was usually 30 days. It was customary for the wealthy to aid poor Nazirites in the purchase of their offerings. During the Maccabean period, the Nazirites were unable to complete their rites because the temple was profaned (1 Macc 3:49-51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAZARITE*, NAZIRITE Person who was either chosen or consecrated for life or for a set period of time to complete a vow to God. The Nazirite (Nazarite) devoted himself to self-imposed discipline in order to perform some special service (Nm 6:1-21). Israelite tradition viewed the Nazirite as consecrated for life. Samson was the ancient hero of the Nazirites. He was “consecrated to God” through the vow of his mother (Jgs 13:5; 16:17) and remained under that vow to the “day of his death” (13:7). ...","summary_en":"NAZARITE*, NAZIRITE Person who was either chosen or consecrated for life or for a set period of time to complete a vow to God. The Nazirite (Nazarite) devoted himself to self-imposed discipline in order to perform some special service (Nm 6:1-21). Israelite tradition viewed the Nazirite as consecrated for life. Samson was the ancient hero of the Nazirites. He was “consecrated to God” through the vow of his mother (Jgs 13:5; 16:17) and remained under that vow to the “day of his death” (13:7). ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32495,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Razor","title_en":"Razor","content_ro":"<h3>RAZOR<\/h3>\n<p>A sharp tool used for shaving off the beard or hair (Nm 8:7; Ez 5:1). Use of the razor was proscribed for those under the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:5; 1 Sm 1:11). The instrument played a central role in Samson’s life (Jgs 13:5; 16:17).<\/p>\n<p>The razor is a simile for a slanderous tongue (Ps 52:2) and a metaphor for judgment (Is 7:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAZOR<\/h3>\n<p>A sharp tool used for shaving off the beard or hair (Nm 8:7; Ez 5:1). Use of the razor was proscribed for those under the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:5; 1 Sm 1:11). The instrument played a central role in Samson’s life (Jgs 13:5; 16:17).<\/p>\n<p>The razor is a simile for a slanderous tongue (Ps 52:2) and a metaphor for judgment (Is 7:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAZOR A sharp tool used for shaving off the beard or hair (Nm 8:7; Ez 5:1). Use of the razor was proscribed for those under the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:5; 1 Sm 1:11). The instrument played a central role in Samson’s life (Jgs 13:5; 16:17). The razor is a simile for a slanderous tongue (Ps 52:2) and a metaphor for judgment (Is 7:20).","summary_en":"RAZOR A sharp tool used for shaving off the beard or hair (Nm 8:7; Ez 5:1). Use of the razor was proscribed for those under the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:5; 1 Sm 1:11). The instrument played a central role in Samson’s life (Jgs 13:5; 16:17). The razor is a simile for a slanderous tongue (Ps 52:2) and a metaphor for judgment (Is 7:20).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:17","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","summary_en":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:17","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","summary_en":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:17","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","summary_en":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:17","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:17-19<\/strong> Samson’s <em>hair<\/em> was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The <em>seven<\/em> braided <em>locks<\/em> were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind <em>his strength<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","summary_en":"16:17-19 Samson’s hair was the sign of his vow to the Lord; when his hair was shorn, his vow would be broken. The seven braided locks were only a sign; the Lord’s presence was the reality behind his strength.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":45906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","summary_en":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","summary_en":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","summary_en":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> After being fooled three times, the <em>rulers<\/em> had given up and left. Now, however, they <em>returned with the money in their hands<\/em>—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","summary_en":"16:18 After being fooled three times, the rulers had given up and left. Now, however, they returned with the money in their hands—they knew that this was the moment they had dreamed of.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":45907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","summary_en":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","summary_en":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","summary_en":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:20","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:20<\/strong> Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson <em>didn’t realize<\/em> that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","summary_en":"16:20 Like the remorseful but presumptuous earlier Israelites (Num 14:40-45), Samson didn’t realize that his hair was gone and that the divine presence had departed (cp. Hos 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61013,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61215,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88639,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88841,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116265,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116467,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143891,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144093,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":5217,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Blindness","title_en":"Blindness","content_ro":"<h3>BLINDNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of lacking the ability to see. Physical blindness was common in the ancient Near East and is still prevalent among the poor and tribal peoples lacking the benefits of modern medicine.<\/p>\n<p>Medical causes of blindness are not specified in the Bible, but poor personal hygiene and unsanitary living conditions were undoubtedly contributing factors. Newborn babies were especially susceptible. Much blindness from birth (Jn 9:1-3) was probably gonorrhea of the eyes. In the birth process germs from the mother passed to the eyes of the infant, where they found an ideal medium for growth. Within three days inflammation, pus and swelling would be evident. In such cases, primitive treatment could not prevent some permanent or even total damage to the eye. Modern medical practice treats all newborn babies with antiseptic eyedrops; but such treatment is not always available to the poor, or is rejected by them in parts of the Middle East today. Babies and young children have also been threatened by infectious ophthalmia. Carried by flies, that disease causes heavy crusting, droopy eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and eventually clouding of the cornea, often leading to total blindness. In parts of the world one may still see a mother (because of folk superstition) permitting flies to swarm continuously on her baby’s face even as she holds the infant in her lap. Blindness among adults might be due to side effects from illnesses such as malaria, long exposure to sandstorms and sun glare in the desert, accidents, punishment (as with Samson, Jgs 16:21), or old age (Gn 27:1; 1 Sm 4:15; 1 Kgs 14:4).<\/p>\n<p>The OT demanded special consideration for the blind (Lv 19:14) and imposed punishment for misleading a blind person (Dt 27:18). A blind man, considered defective, was not permitted to serve as a priest (Lv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ healing ministry brought sight to the blind in fulfillment of prophecy (Lk 4:18). His ability to restore vision was one of the proofs given to John the Baptist that Jesus was the Messiah (Mt 11:5). Jesus healed two blind men in Galilee (9:27-30), one blind man in Bethsaida (Mk 8:22-26), a man blind from birth in Jerusalem (Jn 9), and a blind beggar named Bartimaeus and his friend at Jericho (Mk 10:46-52; cf. Mt 20:30-34; Lk 18:35-43). At times Jesus commanded immediate restoration (Mk 10:52). On other occasions he used “means” such as clay and water (Jn 9:6-11) or his own saliva (Mk 8:23). The apostle Paul was blinded at his conversion and received a miraculous cure in the presence of Ananias (Acts 9:1-9, 18). Paul later afflicted a sorcerer, Elymas, with temporary blindness for opposing his ministry on the island of Cyprus (13:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Disease.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BLINDNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Condition of lacking the ability to see. Physical blindness was common in the ancient Near East and is still prevalent among the poor and tribal peoples lacking the benefits of modern medicine.<\/p>\n<p>Medical causes of blindness are not specified in the Bible, but poor personal hygiene and unsanitary living conditions were undoubtedly contributing factors. Newborn babies were especially susceptible. Much blindness from birth (Jn 9:1-3) was probably gonorrhea of the eyes. In the birth process germs from the mother passed to the eyes of the infant, where they found an ideal medium for growth. Within three days inflammation, pus and swelling would be evident. In such cases, primitive treatment could not prevent some permanent or even total damage to the eye. Modern medical practice treats all newborn babies with antiseptic eyedrops; but such treatment is not always available to the poor, or is rejected by them in parts of the Middle East today. Babies and young children have also been threatened by infectious ophthalmia. Carried by flies, that disease causes heavy crusting, droopy eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and eventually clouding of the cornea, often leading to total blindness. In parts of the world one may still see a mother (because of folk superstition) permitting flies to swarm continuously on her baby’s face even as she holds the infant in her lap. Blindness among adults might be due to side effects from illnesses such as malaria, long exposure to sandstorms and sun glare in the desert, accidents, punishment (as with Samson, Jgs 16:21), or old age (Gn 27:1; 1 Sm 4:15; 1 Kgs 14:4).<\/p>\n<p>The OT demanded special consideration for the blind (Lv 19:14) and imposed punishment for misleading a blind person (Dt 27:18). A blind man, considered defective, was not permitted to serve as a priest (Lv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ healing ministry brought sight to the blind in fulfillment of prophecy (Lk 4:18). His ability to restore vision was one of the proofs given to John the Baptist that Jesus was the Messiah (Mt 11:5). Jesus healed two blind men in Galilee (9:27-30), one blind man in Bethsaida (Mk 8:22-26), a man blind from birth in Jerusalem (Jn 9), and a blind beggar named Bartimaeus and his friend at Jericho (Mk 10:46-52; cf. Mt 20:30-34; Lk 18:35-43). At times Jesus commanded immediate restoration (Mk 10:52). On other occasions he used “means” such as clay and water (Jn 9:6-11) or his own saliva (Mk 8:23). The apostle Paul was blinded at his conversion and received a miraculous cure in the presence of Ananias (Acts 9:1-9, 18). Paul later afflicted a sorcerer, Elymas, with temporary blindness for opposing his ministry on the island of Cyprus (13:11).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Disease.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BLINDNESS Condition of lacking the ability to see. Physical blindness was common in the ancient Near East and is still prevalent among the poor and tribal peoples lacking the benefits of modern medicine. Medical causes of blindness are not specified in the Bible, but poor personal hygiene and unsanitary living conditions were undoubtedly contributing factors. Newborn babies were especially susceptible. Much blindness from birth (Jn 9:1-3) was probably gonorrhea of the eyes. In the birth proce...","summary_en":"BLINDNESS Condition of lacking the ability to see. Physical blindness was common in the ancient Near East and is still prevalent among the poor and tribal peoples lacking the benefits of modern medicine. Medical causes of blindness are not specified in the Bible, but poor personal hygiene and unsanitary living conditions were undoubtedly contributing factors. Newborn babies were especially susceptible. Much blindness from birth (Jn 9:1-3) was probably gonorrhea of the eyes. In the birth proce...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8117,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","title_en":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","content_ro":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","summary_en":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13277,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaza","title_en":"Gaza","content_ro":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","summary_en":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14680,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gouging","title_en":"Gouging","content_ro":"<h3>GOUGING<\/h3>\n<p>Common practice among the Philistines, Amorites, Babylonians, and other nations surrounding Israel (Jgs 16:21; 2 Kgs 25:7) of forcibly removing the eyes. The practice was intended not only to disable but also to bring extreme disgrace upon the person (1 Sm 11:2). Although the Israelites seem to have known about it from their sojourn in Egypt (Nm 16:14), there is no evidence that it was a common practice in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOUGING<\/h3>\n<p>Common practice among the Philistines, Amorites, Babylonians, and other nations surrounding Israel (Jgs 16:21; 2 Kgs 25:7) of forcibly removing the eyes. The practice was intended not only to disable but also to bring extreme disgrace upon the person (1 Sm 11:2). Although the Israelites seem to have known about it from their sojourn in Egypt (Nm 16:14), there is no evidence that it was a common practice in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOUGING Common practice among the Philistines, Amorites, Babylonians, and other nations surrounding Israel (Jgs 16:21; 2 Kgs 25:7) of forcibly removing the eyes. The practice was intended not only to disable but also to bring extreme disgrace upon the person (1 Sm 11:2). Although the Israelites seem to have known about it from their sojourn in Egypt (Nm 16:14), there is no evidence that it was a common practice in Israel. See also Criminal Law and Punishment.","summary_en":"GOUGING Common practice among the Philistines, Amorites, Babylonians, and other nations surrounding Israel (Jgs 16:21; 2 Kgs 25:7) of forcibly removing the eyes. The practice was intended not only to disable but also to bring extreme disgrace upon the person (1 Sm 11:2). Although the Israelites seem to have known about it from their sojourn in Egypt (Nm 16:14), there is no evidence that it was a common practice in Israel. See also Criminal Law and Punishment.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25750,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mill","title_en":"Mill","content_ro":"<h3>MILL<\/h3>\n<p>Two circular stones (millstones) used in the grinding of grain. The grinding of grain as depicted in ancient art is attested in archaeological excavations in the Middle East from at least the Neolithic period (c. 8300–4500 <span>BC<\/span>) in the shape of various concave stones with flat grinding pieces accompanying them. These were essentially handmills. Over the centuries improvements in technique took place. But two elements were always necessary, the lower one on which the grain was spread and the upper one, which was moved over the surface of the lower one under pressure, to grind the grain into flour. The Hebrew term for “mill” is grammatically a dual—that is, it refers to two elements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The earliest mill, the saddle quern, consisted of a rough base stone, slightly concave, and a convex rubbing stone. The base stone varied from 18 to 30 inches (45.7 to 76.2 centimeters) across with one end a little thicker than the other. It was known in Hebrew as “the underneath portion” (Jb 41:24). The upper stone, called the “rider portion” (Jgs 9:53; 2 Sm 11:21), varied from 6 to 15 inches (15.2 to 38.1 centimeters) in length and was flat on one side and convex on the other. It could be held easily in the hand. Grinding was done by pushing the upper stone backward and forward over the grain, which lay on the lower stone. Only a small quantity of grain could be ground at one time using this method (Gn 18:6).<\/p>\n<p>A second type of handmill consisted of two round stones. The lower one could be either convex or concave on top and the upper one was either concave or convex so as to fit nearly over the lower stone. Some examples of this type of mill have a funnel-shaped hole in the center of the top stone through which grain was poured. The upper mill was turned on the lower one by means of a wooden peg inserted on its outside edge. As the grain was crushed, it escaped along the edges of the upper stone. Commonly the stone used was black basalt because its rough and porous surface provided good cutting edges. The normal type of handmill could be operated by one person, but sometimes two persons were required (Mt 24:41).<\/p>\n<p>So important was the handmill in the life of the people that it was prohibited by law to take a man’s millstone as a pledge against the payment of a debt, for this would deprive his family of the means of making flour for bread (Dt 24:6). These stones were heavy enough to kill a man when thrown on his head, as in the case of Abimelech (Jgs 9:53; cf. 2 Sm 11:21).<\/p>\n<p>Normally, the grinding of grain was the task of servants (Ex 11:5) or of women (Is 47:2). The noise of grinding could be heard each day in every village in Palestine. When that sound ceased, the village had come to an end (Jer 25:10).<\/p>\n<p>There seems to have been larger community mills that required animal power. A heavy round stone, perhaps four to five feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) in diameter, was rolled on its edge by means of a pole through its center. This pole rotated around a vertical post in much the same way as one finds in some Eastern lands even today. It may have been a large mill of this type that Samson was forced to use to grind grain for the Philistines (Jgs 16:21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Bread; Agriculture.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MILL<\/h3>\n<p>Two circular stones (millstones) used in the grinding of grain. The grinding of grain as depicted in ancient art is attested in archaeological excavations in the Middle East from at least the Neolithic period (c. 8300–4500 <span>BC<\/span>) in the shape of various concave stones with flat grinding pieces accompanying them. These were essentially handmills. Over the centuries improvements in technique took place. But two elements were always necessary, the lower one on which the grain was spread and the upper one, which was moved over the surface of the lower one under pressure, to grind the grain into flour. The Hebrew term for “mill” is grammatically a dual—that is, it refers to two elements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The earliest mill, the saddle quern, consisted of a rough base stone, slightly concave, and a convex rubbing stone. The base stone varied from 18 to 30 inches (45.7 to 76.2 centimeters) across with one end a little thicker than the other. It was known in Hebrew as “the underneath portion” (Jb 41:24). The upper stone, called the “rider portion” (Jgs 9:53; 2 Sm 11:21), varied from 6 to 15 inches (15.2 to 38.1 centimeters) in length and was flat on one side and convex on the other. It could be held easily in the hand. Grinding was done by pushing the upper stone backward and forward over the grain, which lay on the lower stone. Only a small quantity of grain could be ground at one time using this method (Gn 18:6).<\/p>\n<p>A second type of handmill consisted of two round stones. The lower one could be either convex or concave on top and the upper one was either concave or convex so as to fit nearly over the lower stone. Some examples of this type of mill have a funnel-shaped hole in the center of the top stone through which grain was poured. The upper mill was turned on the lower one by means of a wooden peg inserted on its outside edge. As the grain was crushed, it escaped along the edges of the upper stone. Commonly the stone used was black basalt because its rough and porous surface provided good cutting edges. The normal type of handmill could be operated by one person, but sometimes two persons were required (Mt 24:41).<\/p>\n<p>So important was the handmill in the life of the people that it was prohibited by law to take a man’s millstone as a pledge against the payment of a debt, for this would deprive his family of the means of making flour for bread (Dt 24:6). These stones were heavy enough to kill a man when thrown on his head, as in the case of Abimelech (Jgs 9:53; cf. 2 Sm 11:21).<\/p>\n<p>Normally, the grinding of grain was the task of servants (Ex 11:5) or of women (Is 47:2). The noise of grinding could be heard each day in every village in Palestine. When that sound ceased, the village had come to an end (Jer 25:10).<\/p>\n<p>There seems to have been larger community mills that required animal power. A heavy round stone, perhaps four to five feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) in diameter, was rolled on its edge by means of a pole through its center. This pole rotated around a vertical post in much the same way as one finds in some Eastern lands even today. It may have been a large mill of this type that Samson was forced to use to grind grain for the Philistines (Jgs 16:21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Bread; Agriculture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MILL Two circular stones (millstones) used in the grinding of grain. The grinding of grain as depicted in ancient art is attested in archaeological excavations in the Middle East from at least the Neolithic period (c. 8300–4500 BC) in the shape of various concave stones with flat grinding pieces accompanying them. These were essentially handmills. Over the centuries improvements in technique took place. But two elements were always necessary, the lower one on which the grain was spread and th...","summary_en":"MILL Two circular stones (millstones) used in the grinding of grain. The grinding of grain as depicted in ancient art is attested in archaeological excavations in the Middle East from at least the Neolithic period (c. 8300–4500 BC) in the shape of various concave stones with flat grinding pieces accompanying them. These were essentially handmills. Over the centuries improvements in technique took place. But two elements were always necessary, the lower one on which the grain was spread and th...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33703,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","summary_en":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":45908,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","summary_en":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","summary_en":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","summary_en":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when <em>his hair began to grow back<\/em><em>;<\/em> there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","summary_en":"16:22 There was no certainty that the Lord would revive Samson’s strength when his hair began to grow back; there was only the hope that the Lord’s earlier promise—that he would begin to rescue Israel through this strange and now broken hero—still stood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":8447,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dagon","title_en":"Dagon","content_ro":"<h3>DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). <em>See<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAGON<\/h3>\n<p>Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). <em>See<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAGON Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). See Canaanite Deities and Religion.","summary_en":"DAGON Deity worshiped throughout the Mesopotamian world. In the OT, Dagon is the principal god of the Philistines (Jgs 16:23; 1 Sm 5:2-7; 1 Chr 10:10). Shrines to Dagon were found in Israel’s territories (Beth-dagon, Jos 15:41; 19:27). See Canaanite Deities and Religion.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Philistines Philistia","title_en":"Philistines Philistia","content_ro":"<h3>PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES<\/h3>\n<p>Small country situated in southwestern Palestine, along the Mediterranean coast (also called “Palestina” in <span>kjv<\/span>, Ex 15:14; Is 14:29-31); Aegean people who settled on the maritime plain of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• The People<\/p>\n<p>• Government<\/p>\n<p>• Religion and Ritual Objects<\/p>\n<p>• The Philistines and Israel<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>Strictly speaking, Philistia is that part of the maritime plain that is called the plain of Philistia, extending from the Wadi el-Arish (River of Egypt) in the south some 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) north to the Nahr el-Aujah, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. Near Gaza the plain reaches its greatest width, about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). There are sand dunes near the shore, but most of the area is very fertile and produces an abundance of grain (cf. Jgs 15:1-5) and fruit.<\/p>\n<p>The main highway between the East and Egypt lay along the coast. This was of commercial advantage for the Philistines, but it left them open to foreign invasion. God did not lead Israel from Egypt to Canaan by this shortest route through the land of the Philistines, because he did not want them to encounter fierce fighting from the Philistines (or perhaps from an Egyptian garrison stationed there) so soon (Ex 13:17). Apparently, the Philistines had little to fear from the Egyptians, for some scholars think that the Egyptians had a hand in locating the Philistines in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>From this constricted area the Philistines soon felt a necessity to expand. The passes through the Shephelah provided natural access to the hill country of Israel. They established outposts in Israelite territory, and at the time of the battle in which Saul and his sons were killed, the Philistines exercised control over the city of Beth-shan (1 Sm 31:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePeople\">The People<\/p>\n<p>The Bible states that the Philistines came from Caphtor (Dt 2:23; Jer 47:4; Am 9:7), which is generally regarded as Crete, although some scholars place it in Asia Minor. The attire of the Philistines, as shown at Medinet Habu, is like that of Cretans, especially the headdress. The name of the Cherethites has been equated with Cretans, for the names have the same consonantal base: <em>c, r,<\/em> and <em>t.<\/em> The Cherethites were apparently a Philistine subgroup who lived in the Negev not far from Ziklag, David’s home among the Philistines (cf. 1 Sm 30:14). The Cherethites and the Pelethites were among David’s bodyguards, along with 600 Gittites (men from Gath) (cf. 2 Sm 15:19; 20:7, 23; 1 Chr 18:17).<\/p>\n\n<p>The name Philistines is recognizable in several languages. In Hebrew they are known as the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pelishtim<\/span><em>,<\/em> which has been translated into English as Philistines. In the Egyptian sources they are listed among the Sea Peoples and are called the <em>Peleset<\/em> or <em>Peleste.<\/em> They are best known for their part in the invasion of Egypt by the Sea Peoples, who were vanquished by Ramses III in a land and sea battle in the Delta. Detailed scenes of this fighting are shown in deep-sunk relief on the north exterior wall of the temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, opposite Luxor. These depictions give some idea of the attire and armament of the Philistines, who are easily identified by their headdress, which was made of feathers (or reeds?).<\/p>\n<p>These people settled along the coast of Palestine after their defeat by Ramses, but it is possible that some stayed in Canaan on their way to Egypt. Possibly an earlier migration to Palestine occurred, perhaps before the time of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/p>\n<p>Philistia had no single ruler over their entire land; the cities were independent, so they operated as city-states. The heads of these cities were not called kings but were spoken of in the Bible as “lords” or “rulers” (e.g., 1 Sm 5:11; 6:12; 29:2), and there were five of them, corresponding to the five major cities that comprised the Philistine Pentapolis: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (1 Sm 6:17; cf. Jer 25:20). The people had a voice in matters that related to them—for example, the return of the ark of the covenant (1 Sm 5:6-12)—but the great decisions were made by majority vote of the five lords. While David and his men were living at Ziklag, for example, the Philistines planned a big military campaign against Israel. David was subject to Achish, king of Gath, who asked David to join forces with the Philistines against Israel. David agreed to this, but when the Philistine lords found that David was present, they complained and voted him out (ch 29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligionandRitualObjects\">Religion and Ritual Objects<\/p>\n<p>Whatever gods the Philistines brought with them seem to have been abandoned relatively early in favor of Canaanite deities. A primary Philistine god mentioned in the Bible is Dagon, a grain god. Temples to Dagon have been found at Ras Shamra (Ugarit) and Mari. The Bible refers to a temple of Dagon at Gaza (Jgs 16:23-30) and another at Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePhilistinesandIsrael\">The Philistines and Israel<\/p>\n<p>The various forms of “Philistine” and “Philistia” appear almost 300 times in the OT, mostly in the books of Judges and Samuel. The earliest occurrence is in Genesis 10:14, where it is said that the Philistines came from the Casluhim, an unidentified people related to the Caphtorim (cf. 1 Chr 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both Abraham and Isaac had contacts with the Philistines at Gerar, in parallel incidents involving their wives (Gn 20; 26). Here, however, the Philistines are not on the coast but at Gerar and as far east as Beersheba (26:33). In both references the king of Gerar is called Abimelech—a good Semitic name. It has been suggested that the Philistines of that time had earlier migrated from Crete, but this has not been demonstrated.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Philistines began to exercise superiority over the Israelites. An aggressive and militant people, the Philistines had the advantage of superior weapons, for they used iron and exercised a monopoly on iron making in the area. Their control over Israel allowed them to prohibit blacksmithing in Israel, forcing the Israelites to go to the Philistines even for sharpening tools (1 Sm 13:19-22). The Israelites were so poorly armed that only Saul and Jonathan had a sword or a spear (v 22). Facilities for smelting iron have been found at Ashdod, Tell Qasile, Tell Jemmeh, and Tel Mor.<\/p>\n<p>The Medinet Habu reliefs show the Philistines armed with spears and long, straight swords, with large, round shields for protection. They had three-man chariots with six spoked wheels, and they transported people by means of solid two-wheel carts pulled by four oxen. Their ships were rigged with a square sail, like those of the Egyptians, and had a duck-shaped prow, which possibly was used for ramming enemy vessels.<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy came early in Israel, and the Lord used the Philistines to chasten his people. Shamgar delivered Israel by killing 600 Philistines with an ox goad (Jgs 3:31). The account of Samson has many touches of Philistine life (13:1–16:31). This record demonstrates that there was intermarriage between Israelites and Philistines, contrary to the OT law.<\/p>\n<p>Warfare between Israel and the Philistines is reported in 1 Samuel 4:1, when the Israelites were camped at Ebenezer and the Philistines at Aphek. The Philistines won that round and captured the ark of the covenant (1 Sm 4:17), which they returned after seven months because the Lord sent plagues upon them (5:1–6:21). Later, when Samuel had become leader, the Philistines attacked Israel at Mizpah, but God gave the victory to Israel. On this occasion Samuel set up a memorial stone and named it Ebenezer (“Stone of Help,” 7:12). The Philistines did not invade Israel again during the lifetime of Samuel, and Israel recovered cities that had been taken by the Philistines (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest activity of the Philistines in Israelite territory came during the reign of Saul, Israel’s first king. More than 80 references to the Philistines are related to that period. The Philistines established outposts or garrisons in various parts of Israel (cf. 1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated the garrison at Geba (13:3); his exploit related in 1 Samuel 14:1-15 led to a rout of the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>A confrontation of the Philistine and Israelite armies took place in the valley of Elah, where the Philistines challenged Israel to provide an opponent to meet their champion, Goliath, in single combat (1 Sm 17:1-11). The young shepherd David killed Goliath; David became a hero, but Saul’s jealousy made David a hunted man. In the course of dodging Saul’s army, David’s men rescued the town of Keilah from the Philistines (23:1-5). Eventually David sought political asylum with Achish, king of Gath, who gave him the town of Ziklag, from which David made raids in the Negev (ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines were preparing for war against Israel, Achish asked David to join the Philistine forces, and David agreed. The lords of the Philistines voted down this participation, for they feared that David would turn against them (1 Sm 28:1-2; 29). In the ensuing battle Saul and his sons were killed on Mt Gilboa by the Philistines (31:1-7). The Philistines cut off Saul’s head, placed his armor in the temple of Ashtaroth in Beth-shan, and hung his body on the wall of that city (vv 8-11).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines learned that David had become king, they made an effort to destroy him, but he defeated them “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:17-25). David broke the Philistine power, and although they again attempted war against Israel, they met with no success (21:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah warred against the Philistines; he broke down the walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod and built cities in Philistia (2 Chr 26:6-7). In the reign of Ahaz, the Philistines invaded the Shephelah and the Negev and captured a number of cities (28:18). Hezekiah fought against the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>References to the Philistines in the Prophets are relatively few, although Jeremiah devotes a short chapter to the Philistines (Jer 47). The Philistines were gradually assimilated into Canaanite culture and they disappeared from the pages of the Bible and from secular history, leaving the name Palestine as a monument to their presence.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES<\/h3>\n<p>Small country situated in southwestern Palestine, along the Mediterranean coast (also called “Palestina” in <span>kjv<\/span>, Ex 15:14; Is 14:29-31); Aegean people who settled on the maritime plain of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Territory<\/p>\n<p>• The People<\/p>\n<p>• Government<\/p>\n<p>• Religion and Ritual Objects<\/p>\n<p>• The Philistines and Israel<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Territory\">Territory<\/p>\n<p>Strictly speaking, Philistia is that part of the maritime plain that is called the plain of Philistia, extending from the Wadi el-Arish (River of Egypt) in the south some 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) north to the Nahr el-Aujah, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Joppa. Near Gaza the plain reaches its greatest width, about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers). There are sand dunes near the shore, but most of the area is very fertile and produces an abundance of grain (cf. Jgs 15:1-5) and fruit.<\/p>\n<p>The main highway between the East and Egypt lay along the coast. This was of commercial advantage for the Philistines, but it left them open to foreign invasion. God did not lead Israel from Egypt to Canaan by this shortest route through the land of the Philistines, because he did not want them to encounter fierce fighting from the Philistines (or perhaps from an Egyptian garrison stationed there) so soon (Ex 13:17). Apparently, the Philistines had little to fear from the Egyptians, for some scholars think that the Egyptians had a hand in locating the Philistines in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>From this constricted area the Philistines soon felt a necessity to expand. The passes through the Shephelah provided natural access to the hill country of Israel. They established outposts in Israelite territory, and at the time of the battle in which Saul and his sons were killed, the Philistines exercised control over the city of Beth-shan (1 Sm 31:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePeople\">The People<\/p>\n<p>The Bible states that the Philistines came from Caphtor (Dt 2:23; Jer 47:4; Am 9:7), which is generally regarded as Crete, although some scholars place it in Asia Minor. The attire of the Philistines, as shown at Medinet Habu, is like that of Cretans, especially the headdress. The name of the Cherethites has been equated with Cretans, for the names have the same consonantal base: <em>c, r,<\/em> and <em>t.<\/em> The Cherethites were apparently a Philistine subgroup who lived in the Negev not far from Ziklag, David’s home among the Philistines (cf. 1 Sm 30:14). The Cherethites and the Pelethites were among David’s bodyguards, along with 600 Gittites (men from Gath) (cf. 2 Sm 15:19; 20:7, 23; 1 Chr 18:17).<\/p>\n\n<p>The name Philistines is recognizable in several languages. In Hebrew they are known as the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pelishtim<\/span><em>,<\/em> which has been translated into English as Philistines. In the Egyptian sources they are listed among the Sea Peoples and are called the <em>Peleset<\/em> or <em>Peleste.<\/em> They are best known for their part in the invasion of Egypt by the Sea Peoples, who were vanquished by Ramses III in a land and sea battle in the Delta. Detailed scenes of this fighting are shown in deep-sunk relief on the north exterior wall of the temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, opposite Luxor. These depictions give some idea of the attire and armament of the Philistines, who are easily identified by their headdress, which was made of feathers (or reeds?).<\/p>\n<p>These people settled along the coast of Palestine after their defeat by Ramses, but it is possible that some stayed in Canaan on their way to Egypt. Possibly an earlier migration to Palestine occurred, perhaps before the time of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/p>\n<p>Philistia had no single ruler over their entire land; the cities were independent, so they operated as city-states. The heads of these cities were not called kings but were spoken of in the Bible as “lords” or “rulers” (e.g., 1 Sm 5:11; 6:12; 29:2), and there were five of them, corresponding to the five major cities that comprised the Philistine Pentapolis: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (1 Sm 6:17; cf. Jer 25:20). The people had a voice in matters that related to them—for example, the return of the ark of the covenant (1 Sm 5:6-12)—but the great decisions were made by majority vote of the five lords. While David and his men were living at Ziklag, for example, the Philistines planned a big military campaign against Israel. David was subject to Achish, king of Gath, who asked David to join forces with the Philistines against Israel. David agreed to this, but when the Philistine lords found that David was present, they complained and voted him out (ch 29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligionandRitualObjects\">Religion and Ritual Objects<\/p>\n<p>Whatever gods the Philistines brought with them seem to have been abandoned relatively early in favor of Canaanite deities. A primary Philistine god mentioned in the Bible is Dagon, a grain god. Temples to Dagon have been found at Ras Shamra (Ugarit) and Mari. The Bible refers to a temple of Dagon at Gaza (Jgs 16:23-30) and another at Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePhilistinesandIsrael\">The Philistines and Israel<\/p>\n<p>The various forms of “Philistine” and “Philistia” appear almost 300 times in the OT, mostly in the books of Judges and Samuel. The earliest occurrence is in Genesis 10:14, where it is said that the Philistines came from the Casluhim, an unidentified people related to the Caphtorim (cf. 1 Chr 1:12).<\/p>\n<p>Both Abraham and Isaac had contacts with the Philistines at Gerar, in parallel incidents involving their wives (Gn 20; 26). Here, however, the Philistines are not on the coast but at Gerar and as far east as Beersheba (26:33). In both references the king of Gerar is called Abimelech—a good Semitic name. It has been suggested that the Philistines of that time had earlier migrated from Crete, but this has not been demonstrated.<\/p>\n<p>After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Philistines began to exercise superiority over the Israelites. An aggressive and militant people, the Philistines had the advantage of superior weapons, for they used iron and exercised a monopoly on iron making in the area. Their control over Israel allowed them to prohibit blacksmithing in Israel, forcing the Israelites to go to the Philistines even for sharpening tools (1 Sm 13:19-22). The Israelites were so poorly armed that only Saul and Jonathan had a sword or a spear (v 22). Facilities for smelting iron have been found at Ashdod, Tell Qasile, Tell Jemmeh, and Tel Mor.<\/p>\n<p>The Medinet Habu reliefs show the Philistines armed with spears and long, straight swords, with large, round shields for protection. They had three-man chariots with six spoked wheels, and they transported people by means of solid two-wheel carts pulled by four oxen. Their ships were rigged with a square sail, like those of the Egyptians, and had a duck-shaped prow, which possibly was used for ramming enemy vessels.<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy came early in Israel, and the Lord used the Philistines to chasten his people. Shamgar delivered Israel by killing 600 Philistines with an ox goad (Jgs 3:31). The account of Samson has many touches of Philistine life (13:1–16:31). This record demonstrates that there was intermarriage between Israelites and Philistines, contrary to the OT law.<\/p>\n<p>Warfare between Israel and the Philistines is reported in 1 Samuel 4:1, when the Israelites were camped at Ebenezer and the Philistines at Aphek. The Philistines won that round and captured the ark of the covenant (1 Sm 4:17), which they returned after seven months because the Lord sent plagues upon them (5:1–6:21). Later, when Samuel had become leader, the Philistines attacked Israel at Mizpah, but God gave the victory to Israel. On this occasion Samuel set up a memorial stone and named it Ebenezer (“Stone of Help,” 7:12). The Philistines did not invade Israel again during the lifetime of Samuel, and Israel recovered cities that had been taken by the Philistines (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>The greatest activity of the Philistines in Israelite territory came during the reign of Saul, Israel’s first king. More than 80 references to the Philistines are related to that period. The Philistines established outposts or garrisons in various parts of Israel (cf. 1 Sm 10:5; 13:3). Jonathan defeated the garrison at Geba (13:3); his exploit related in 1 Samuel 14:1-15 led to a rout of the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>A confrontation of the Philistine and Israelite armies took place in the valley of Elah, where the Philistines challenged Israel to provide an opponent to meet their champion, Goliath, in single combat (1 Sm 17:1-11). The young shepherd David killed Goliath; David became a hero, but Saul’s jealousy made David a hunted man. In the course of dodging Saul’s army, David’s men rescued the town of Keilah from the Philistines (23:1-5). Eventually David sought political asylum with Achish, king of Gath, who gave him the town of Ziklag, from which David made raids in the Negev (ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines were preparing for war against Israel, Achish asked David to join the Philistine forces, and David agreed. The lords of the Philistines voted down this participation, for they feared that David would turn against them (1 Sm 28:1-2; 29). In the ensuing battle Saul and his sons were killed on Mt Gilboa by the Philistines (31:1-7). The Philistines cut off Saul’s head, placed his armor in the temple of Ashtaroth in Beth-shan, and hung his body on the wall of that city (vv 8-11).<\/p>\n<p>When the Philistines learned that David had become king, they made an effort to destroy him, but he defeated them “from Geba to Gezer” (2 Sm 5:17-25). David broke the Philistine power, and although they again attempted war against Israel, they met with no success (21:15-21).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah warred against the Philistines; he broke down the walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod and built cities in Philistia (2 Chr 26:6-7). In the reign of Ahaz, the Philistines invaded the Shephelah and the Negev and captured a number of cities (28:18). Hezekiah fought against the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>References to the Philistines in the Prophets are relatively few, although Jeremiah devotes a short chapter to the Philistines (Jer 47). The Philistines were gradually assimilated into Canaanite culture and they disappeared from the pages of the Bible and from secular history, leaving the name Palestine as a monument to their presence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES Small country situated in southwestern Palestine, along the Mediterranean coast (also called “Palestina” in kjv, Ex 15:14; Is 14:29-31); Aegean people who settled on the maritime plain of Canaan. Preview • Territory • The People • Government • Religion and Ritual Objects • The Philistines and Israel Territory Strictly speaking, Philistia is that part of the maritime plain that is called the plain of Philistia, extending from the Wadi el-Arish (River of Egypt) in the sou...","summary_en":"PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES Small country situated in southwestern Palestine, along the Mediterranean coast (also called “Palestina” in kjv, Ex 15:14; Is 14:29-31); Aegean people who settled on the maritime plain of Canaan. Preview • Territory • The People • Government • Religion and Ritual Objects • The Philistines and Israel Territory Strictly speaking, Philistia is that part of the maritime plain that is called the plain of Philistia, extending from the Wadi el-Arish (River of Egypt) in the sou...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","summary_en":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","summary_en":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","summary_en":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23-24<\/strong> In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to <em>their god, Dagon<\/em>. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","summary_en":"16:23-24 In their boundless rejoicing, the Philistines gave all the credit to their god, Dagon. In the pagan mind, the relative strength of nations reflected the power of their gods.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":9434,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Destroyer","title_en":"the Destroyer","content_ro":"<h3>DESTROYER, The<\/h3>\n<li>1. Divine agent sent to carry out a sentence of destruction. The destroyer killed Egypt’s firstborn, culminating the plagues and releasing the Hebrews from slavery (Ex 12:23; cf. Heb 11:28). The apostle Paul used the term for God’s judgment on the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness (1 Cor 10:10; cf. Nm 16:44-50).<\/li>\n<li>2. In plural form, “destroyers” implies destruction carried out by a group of agents, whether angelic or human (Jb 33:22; Jer 22:7).<\/li>\n<li>3. In a broader sense, any agent of destruction (Jb 15:21; Jer 4:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Samson was called a destroyer by his Philistine captors (Jgs 16:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DESTROYER, The<\/h3>\n<li>1. Divine agent sent to carry out a sentence of destruction. The destroyer killed Egypt’s firstborn, culminating the plagues and releasing the Hebrews from slavery (Ex 12:23; cf. Heb 11:28). The apostle Paul used the term for God’s judgment on the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness (1 Cor 10:10; cf. Nm 16:44-50).<\/li>\n<li>2. In plural form, “destroyers” implies destruction carried out by a group of agents, whether angelic or human (Jb 33:22; Jer 22:7).<\/li>\n<li>3. In a broader sense, any agent of destruction (Jb 15:21; Jer 4:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Samson was called a destroyer by his Philistine captors (Jgs 16:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"DESTROYER, The 1. Divine agent sent to carry out a sentence of destruction. The destroyer killed Egypt’s firstborn, culminating the plagues and releasing the Hebrews from slavery (Ex 12:23; cf. Heb 11:28). The apostle Paul used the term for God’s judgment on the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness (1 Cor 10:10; cf. Nm 16:44-50). 2. In plural form, “destroyers” implies destruction carried out by a group of agents, whether angelic or human (Jb 33:22; Jer 22:7). 3. In a broader sense, any ag...","summary_en":"DESTROYER, The 1. Divine agent sent to carry out a sentence of destruction. The destroyer killed Egypt’s firstborn, culminating the plagues and releasing the Hebrews from slavery (Ex 12:23; cf. Heb 11:28). The apostle Paul used the term for God’s judgment on the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness (1 Cor 10:10; cf. Nm 16:44-50). 2. In plural form, “destroyers” implies destruction carried out by a group of agents, whether angelic or human (Jb 33:22; Jer 22:7). 3. In a broader sense, any ag...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":28875,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Parapet*","title_en":"Parapet*","content_ro":"<h3>PARAPET*<\/h3>\n<p>Protective barrier around the circumference of house roofs. The parapet was required by the Law (Dt 22:8) since flat roofs were widely used (Jos 2:6; Jgs 16:27; 1 Sm 9:25; Is 22:1). Construction of a parapet would relieve the dweller from liability should a person fall from the roof.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Architecture; Homes and Dwellings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PARAPET*<\/h3>\n<p>Protective barrier around the circumference of house roofs. The parapet was required by the Law (Dt 22:8) since flat roofs were widely used (Jos 2:6; Jgs 16:27; 1 Sm 9:25; Is 22:1). Construction of a parapet would relieve the dweller from liability should a person fall from the roof.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Architecture; Homes and Dwellings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PARAPET* Protective barrier around the circumference of house roofs. The parapet was required by the Law (Dt 22:8) since flat roofs were widely used (Jos 2:6; Jgs 16:27; 1 Sm 9:25; Is 22:1). Construction of a parapet would relieve the dweller from liability should a person fall from the roof. See also Architecture; Homes and Dwellings.","summary_en":"PARAPET* Protective barrier around the circumference of house roofs. The parapet was required by the Law (Dt 22:8) since flat roofs were widely used (Jos 2:6; Jgs 16:27; 1 Sm 9:25; Is 22:1). Construction of a parapet would relieve the dweller from liability should a person fall from the roof. See also Architecture; Homes and Dwellings.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":41179,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68805,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96431,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124057,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samson<\/h3>\n<p>Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocked parents that he wanted to marry a Philistine girl. Israelites were commanded not to intermarry with the people of the land (Deut 7:1-4; Josh 23:12-13; cp. 2 Cor 6:14-18), but Samson persisted over his parents’ objections. As he was on his way to the wedding party, he scooped honey out of a dead lion he had earlier killed. Samson was born a Nazirite, and Nazirites were absolutely forbidden from touching a dead body (Num 6:1-21), but Samson didn’t care. He then made up a riddle about the lion (Judg 14:14) and bet thirty young Philistine men that they could not solve his riddle. The men pestered his wife into telling them the answer. As a result, Samson became so angry that he killed thirty Philistine men and took their clothing to pay off the bet. God used the self-serving hero to “begin to rescue Israel from the Philistines” (13:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the final, climactic story of Samson’s life (16:4-31), Samson’s lover, Delilah, nagged Samson until he revealed the secret of his strength and thus betrayed his Nazirite vow. She cut his hair, and the Philistines were finally able to overpower him. They blinded him, tied him up securely, and loaded him with menial work. While in captivity, Samson’s hair began to grow again. One day, when the Philistines were celebrating and making fun of him, he asked to be led to the two central pillars of their pagan temple. He then prayed to God to give him the strength to kill the Philistines and take his own life. So he pulled the temple down on the heads of about 3,000 Philistines as well as himself. Even this act, however, was not done for his people or his God, but to “pay back the Philistines for the loss of [his] two eyes” (16:28). Even though it was all in God’s plan, the story of Samson makes the reader long for a better savior.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Judg 13:1–16:31; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","summary_en":"Samson Samson is a prime illustration of God’s using a person for good in spite of that person’s indifference and sin. Samson was a rescuer of Israel without even trying or caring. He did not seem to care about his people, his family, or his God. All he cared about was himself. Nonetheless, God, put him in situation after situation where he brought harm to the Philistines, whom God had allowed to oppress sinful Israel. The first example of how God used Samson occurred after he told his shocke...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21350,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Judges","title_en":"Book of Judges","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","summary_en":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:28","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","summary_en":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:28","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","summary_en":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:28","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","summary_en":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Judecătorii 16:28","title_en":"Study Note: Judecătorii 16:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:28-30<\/strong> Though only for personal revenge, <em>Samson<\/em> furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","summary_en":"16:28-30 Though only for personal revenge, Samson furthered God’s purpose of rescuing his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":11105,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eshtaol","title_en":"Eshtaol","content_ro":"<h3>ESHTAOL<\/h3>\n<p>Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danites (ch 18).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESHTAOL<\/h3>\n<p>Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danites (ch 18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESHTAOL Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danite...","summary_en":"ESHTAOL Lowland town on the border between Judah and Dan (Jos 15:33; 19:41), always mentioned along with nearby Zorah. In this area the young Samson began to be moved by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25), and here he was later buried (16:31). Dan’s tribe sent out five brave men from Zorah and Eshtaol to seek additional land for tribal expansion. When they reported the vulnerability of the city of Laish, 600 men from Zorah and Eshtaol attacked it, opening the area for occupation by the Danite...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21352,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Judges","title_en":"Book of Judges","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book reflects a final editing of the material in the period of the early monarchy. It may well be a polemic for the righteous rule of David over against the kingship of Saul, which was molded by a secular, Canaanite conception of kingship rather than by the law of God. The author was almost certainly not Samuel, as traditionally thought, but a later compiler who relied on ancient written materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Though the judges succeeded in giving the tribes some rest from the incursions of surrounding enemies, the Israelites were continually harassed over long periods of time. Scholarly opinion differs on the duration of the period of the judges. The dating of the exodus affects the dating of the beginning of the judges. Those who take an early date for the exodus put the beginning around 1370–1360 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas others propose a date close to the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. A related issue pertains to the chronology of the judges. Does Judges give a chronological, sequential account of the period, or is the book a representative account of judges from various parts of Canaan and Transjordan who “judged” a region, a tribe, or several tribes simultaneously?<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiteraryFramework\">Literary Framework<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that the stories in the book bear the marks of literary creativity. The stories are classics in their own right. The poetry of Deborah’s song (Jgs 5) is very moving, and the fable of Jotham (9:8-15) is a fine example of figurative speech. The care given to the stories is also reflected in the construction of the book. There are two introductions: a political one (Jgs 1:1–2:5) and a socioreligious one (2:6–3:6). The political introduction connects Judges with the story of the Conquest, when the tribes attempted to occupy the land. It prepares the reader for the political and military problems of the era of the judges. The socioreligious introduction explains why Israel had so many adversities, why the institution of the judges arose, and why the Lord never gave Israel the promised lasting rest from its enemies. The main body of the book is the story of the judges (3:7–16:31). References to the minor judges (six in all) are set within the stories of the major judges in increasing frequency. As is evident from the schema, the number of minor judges increased in frequency in proportion to the decrease in number of major judges: two major, one minor; two major, two minor; one major, three minor; one major. There is a total of 12 judges, representative of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the listing of 12 judges, representative of the various parts of Canaan and Transjordan, is to demonstrate that all tribes throughout the conquered territories experienced grave difficulties from a variety of enemies: Arameans, Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, Canaanites, and Philistines. Israel was hard pressed on nearly all its frontiers. The appendixes (chs 17–21), together with the two introductions, form the framework of the book. The political and socioreligious problems (1:1–3:6) are presented by way of several stories in the last chapters. The final editor who gave the book its canonical shape purposefully framed the stories of the judges so as to show lack of movement. The successes of the previous stages in redemptive history came to a standstill in the ebb and flow of the judges. Though the Lord delivered his people in many ways, they returned to the problems described in 1:1–3:6. The appendixes describe Israel’s problems representative of the period of the judges, when “there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for deliverance, and God’s raising up of a judge reflects a deuteronomic perspective with its warnings concerning disobedience and judgment. The repetitiveness of the cycle supports the contention of the anonymous narrator that Israel remained unchanged by the grace of God. However, in spite of the moral, religious, and political anarchy as well as the civil wars, the last chapter shows that the tribes are still concerned with each other’s welfare. Though the unity of God’s people has been gravely challenged, the situation is not hopeless. The book ends on a note of hope—hope for a king who may deliver Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>Thus, there are several purposes of the book: (1) to demonstrate the meaninglessness of this stage in Israel’s development; (2) to explain why the tribes did not occupy all the land promised to the patriarchs; (3) to justify the way of God, who was gracious and patient with Israel’s repeated acts of disobedience; (4) to set forth the legitimacy of a “shepherd” king in contrast to a despotic form of kingship; and (5) to explain the urgent need for a new momentum, lest Israel succumb to the Philistines and intertribal warfare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Political Introduction (1:1–2:5)<\/h5>\n<p>In Joshua 1–12 the warfare under Joshua is portrayed as a mobilization of Canaanite forces against Israel. By the intervention of the Lord, the Canaanite resistance was put down and the land was occupied by the tribes (chs 13–21). Joshua 13–21, however, clearly shows that each tribe had problems ridding its territory of pockets of Canaanite resistance, which were usually centered around heavily guarded and well-fortified cities (cf. 13:2-6, 13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua emphasizes the successes and minimizes the problems, whereas the prologue to Judges sets the stage for the whole book by openly addressing Israel’s problems and failures. As the book unfolds, it is precisely these problems and failures that in due time bring Israel to the brink of disaster.<\/p>\n<p>The period of the judges began with the death of Joshua (Jgs 1:1; 2:8-9). The Israelites had inherited a legacy from Joshua: the law of the Lord (Jos 23:6; 24:26), the land, a challenge to obey the Lord (24:14-27), and a promise of God’s presence and help in subduing the Canaanites (23:5, 10).<\/p>\n<h6>Judah and Simeon (Jgs 1:2-20)<\/h6>\n<p>The prominence of Judah and Caleb parallels the position of Judah in Joshua (Jos 14:6–15:63; cf. also the house of Joseph, Jgs 1:22-29; cf. Jos 16–17). Judah was victorious over the cruel Adoni-bezek, who ruled over Bezek, a town of uncertain location. Judah successfully occupied the hill country, the Negev, and the western foothills. They even took Jerusalem, or an outlying suburb identified with Jerusalem (Jos 1:8), but could not retain control there (v 21) until David’s conquest of the city (2 Sm 5:6-9). Judah was victorious over the Canaanites in the region of Hebron, already conquered under Joshua (Jos 10:36). Hebron, also known as Kiriath-arba (“city of four” or “tetrapolis”), was a powerful ally of Jerusalem (v 3) and had been able to rally military support for a new assault on Israel, even after its first defeat. Caleb received Hebron, as Moses had promised (Jgs 1:20; cf. Jos 15:13). After the victory over Hebron, Judah extended its control over the southern hill country by an attack on Debir (Jgs 1:11-15; cf. Jos 15:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Kenites (Jgs 1:16), descendants of Jethro and therefore related to Moses by marriage, settled in the Negev around Arad and the City of Palms, which here probably refers to Tamar rather than Jericho.<\/p>\n<p>Judah secured the southern border by a victory over the Canaanites at Hormah (Jgs 1:17; cf. Nm 14:45; 21:3; Dt 1:44) and the coastal plain by victories at Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron. However, Judah’s successes in the coastal plain were resisted by a well-armed Canaanite force (Jgs 1:18-19). It occupied the Judean hill country and the Negev, but could not retain control over the plains. The Philistines were soon to take control over Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron, and incorporate them into their pentapolis.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin (1:21)<\/h6>\n<p>Jerusalem was situated on the border between Judah and Benjamin. Judah took the city or a suburb (Jos 1:8) but was too far removed to retain control over it. Benjamin was too weak to subdue the Jebusites. Only David succeeded in this (2 Sm 5:6-9); he incorporated it into Judah (cf. Jos 15:63), even though it originally was allotted to Benjamin (Jos 18:28).<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph: Ephraim and Manasseh (1:22-29)<\/h6>\n<p>Ephraim took Bethel, known from the patriarchal stories as a significant cultic site (Gn 12:8; 13:3-4; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-15). However, Manasseh was unsuccessful in taking the fortified cities in the valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon): Beth-shan, Taanach, Dor, Ibleam, and Megiddo. These cities controlled traffic along the east-west and north–south roads as well as the important passes through the Carmel range and the ford of the Jordan. Ephraim could not take full possession of the coastal plain, controlled by Gezer. The success of both Ephraim and Manasseh was limited.<\/p>\n<h6>The Other Four Tribes (1:30-36)<\/h6>\n<p>The other four tribes in Canaan receive brief mention. They, too, were only partially successful. Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, and especially Dan did not fully succeed in driving out the Canaanites. At best they later subjected most of them to forced labor.<\/p>\n<h6>The Failure of Israel (2:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>The failure to subdue the land and to wipe out the Canaanites and their culture led to intermarriage and idolatry (cf. Ex 23:33; 34:12-16; Nm 33:55; Dt 7:2-5, 16; Jos 23:7, 12).<\/p>\n<p>The identity of “the angel of the Lord” who appears at Bokim is far from certain. It may be a reference to the Lord himself, to an angelic messenger, or to a prophet (cf. Jgs 6:8). He rebuked the people in the prophetic spirit and pronounced God’s judgment as taking the form of continual confrontation between Israel and the Canaanites (2:3). Their weeping and sacrificing were to no avail (2:4-5; cf. Mal 2:13). Israel stood condemned within a generation after Joshua’s death.<\/p>\n<h5>The Theological Introduction (2:6–3:6)<\/h5>\n<p>The theological introduction begins where Joshua left off (Jos 24:28-31). The generation of Joshua was characterized by loyalty, but their loyalty to the Lord did not last long after the excitement of the Conquest and the demonstration of God’s presence (Jgs 2:10). Israel served Canaanite gods (Baal and Astarte) instead. Baal was the storm god, symbolic of rain and fertility, and Astarte was his cohort. The plural (Baals and Ashtaroth, 2:11-13) signifies the many local ways in which the Canaanite gods were worshiped. The religious unity was broken up into a great diversity. Thus Israel angered the Lord (vv 12-14), who sent them enemies and plunderers. Israel was unsuccessful in dealing with them, as Moses and Joshua had forewarned (Dt 28:25, 33; Jos 23:13, 16). The cycle of apostasy, judgment, cry for mercy, and deliverance is found throughout Judges. The people were rooted in the apostasy of their forefathers, even though the previous generation had been sensitive to God. Israel did not submit to the leadership of the judges, except to free itself from the oppressors. In fulfillment of the curses of the covenant, God swore not to give his people rest but to test them and to train them for warfare (Jgs 3:1-4), so that they might learn to respond to the challenges of a real world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Judges of Israel (3:7–16:31)<\/h5>\n<h6>Othniel (3:7-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Othniel is a transitional figure, linking the Conquest and the judges. He had involved himself in the conquest of Kiriath-sepher and was related to Caleb as his cousin and son-in-law (1:13). He repelled the Arameans led by Cushan-rishathaim, so that the land enjoyed peace for some 40 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ehud (3:12-30)<\/h6>\n<p>The Moabites, allied with the Ammonites and Amalekites, came against Israel from the east and oppressed them for 18 years under the leadership of Eglon. Ehud led the mission to bring tribute to Eglon at his palace, located probably by Jericho (the City of Palms). Ehud was uniquely qualified for this mission; being left-handed, he was able to use his double-edged sword in an unsuspecting manner to stab the king. Ehud’s success was the result of careful plotting and the element of surprise. He paid the tribute and left, only to return with a supposed oracle from the gods. The king fell for the deception and was murdered. The delay at the Moabite court gave the Israelites an opportunity to bring their forces together at the fords of the Jordan. Ehud’s success was complete; no Moabite escaped, and Israel enjoyed peace for 80 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Shamgar (3:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Shamgar’s exploits were against the Philistines in the coastal plains. He had a non-Israelite name but was probably an Israelite by birth. Like Samson he fought the Philistines with an unconventional weapon (an ox goad). His name is also mentioned in the song of Deborah (5:6).<\/p>\n<h6>Deborah and Barak (4:1–5:31)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative now turns to the Canaanite aggressors in the north under the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor, and Sisera, of Harosheth-haggoyim (4:1-3). The ruins of Hazor (Jos 11:13) had been rebuilt, and another Jabin (cf. v 1) ruled over the region. He had regained his military power, as he had as many as 900 chariots of iron. He oppressed Israel for 20 years (Jgs 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>God had a prophetess in Israel who led his people during this dark time (4:4). She rendered judgments under a palm tree in southern Ephraim near Benjamin (v 5). She called on Barak to muster the armies of Naphtali and Zebulun, the tribes affected by the Canaanite raids, and to engage Sisera in a surprise attack by the Kishon River (vv 6-7). Barak’s hesitancy led him to request Deborah’s presence, which resulted in his forfeiture of the honor of killing Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite forces (vv 8-10). The Lord gave success to the surprise attack from Mt Tabor, so that the Canaanites were routed, unable to use their heavy chariots, which were mired down in the swamps of the Jezreel Valley (5:20-22). The Canaanites were routed, and Sisera was killed by Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites around Arad (4:17-18; cf. 1:16). She offered him hospitality, as her family had friendly relations with the Canaanites, but heroically put him to death with a tent peg (4:18-21; 5:26-27). In successive campaigns the Israelites gained freedom from Jabin, until they destroyed his power (4:24).<\/p>\n<p>The song of Deborah (ch 5) celebrates, in poetic fashion, the victory over Jabin. It is one of the oldest poems in the Bible. It praises the God of Israel as the King who comes to protect his covenant people, and before whom the mountains move (5:2-3). He is the God of Mt Sinai (Jgs 5:4-5; cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:7-8; Hb 3:3-4). Though the oppressors had despoiled Israel and had made the roads unsafe for travel, and Israel was unable to defend itself (Jgs 5:6-8), the Lord raised up Deborah and Barak to lead the nobles to war (vv 9-13). They came from Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali (vv 14-15a, 18), but the Transjordan tribes and Asher did not want to get involved (vv 15b-17). The song then moves to the battle scene, where torrential rains bogged the chariots down (vv 19-23). Jael is celebrated as “most blessed of women,” who used her simple way of life to bring an end to Sisera (vv 24-27). She stands in contrast to Sisera’s mother, who is portrayed with all her culture waiting in vain for Sisera’s return with all of his spoils (vv 28-30). The Lord has used the simple to confound the powerful. The conclusion is a prayer for God’s judgment on all of Israel’s enemies (Jgs 5:31a; cf. Ps 68:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Gideon (6:1–8:35)<\/h6>\n<p>Israel’s rest for 40 years (Jgs 5:31b) was disturbed by the invasion of Midianites and Amalekites from the East (6:1-3). They destroyed the economy by invading the country at harvesttime (vv 4-6). In response to Israel’s cry, God sent a prophet with a message similar to that of the angel of the Lord (2:1-5). Then an angel appeared to Gideon and called him to lead the people in battle (6:11-14). The Lord assured him of his presence (v 16) by a sign (vv 17-22). Gideon knew that he had been visited by the Lord and built an altar called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is Peace” in Ophrah (v 24). He responded by destroying the cultic site dedicated to Baal and Asherah at Ophrah (vv 25-28) and by initiating worship at the new altar (v 28). Baal did not protect his own altar (vv 29-32), even when challenged by Gideon’s father (v 31). Consequently, Gideon was known as Jerubbaal (meaning, “let Baal contend with him,” v 32).<\/p>\n<p>Next, Gideon mustered an army of 32,000 men from Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali (6:35; cf. 7:3b). In order to assure himself of the Lord’s presence, he asked for another sign: the sign of the fleece (6:36-40). It must be kept in mind that Gideon lived in an area in which the wonders of God had been scarce (v 13) and that he, like Moses, needed reassurance that God was with him. God responded to his growing faith. Gideon went forth with a greatly reduced army of 300 against the enemy. Of his original army, 22,000 had left because they were afraid (7:2-3; cf. Dt 20:8). Another 9,700 were sent home, though they were valiant men (7:4-8). After assuring Gideon by a dream of an enemy soldier, God used the 300 in a marvelous way to confound the Midianites (vv 9-15). God gave Israel victory over the Midianite leaders Oreb, Zeeb, Zebah, and Zalmunna (7:16–8:21). Gideon wisely avoided a possible military confrontation with Ephraim (8:1-3), pursued the enemy deep into the Transjordan, and punished the leaders of Succoth and Penuel, who did not assist him (vv 4-9, 13-16).<\/p>\n<p>This glorious victory created a new wave of interest in the idea of kingship. The men of Israel wished to establish the family of Gideon as their royal dynasty (8:22). Gideon refused, and instead wrongly set up an ephod, cast from the gold taken in battle (vv 23-27). The ephod was probably used for cultic practices, possibly divination (cf. 17:5).<\/p>\n<p>Gideon’s era also came to an end. He was God’s instrument, giving Israel rest for 40 years. He fathered 70 sons and died in old age. God had richly blessed him, even though he had led Israel astray with his ephod. Thereafter, Israel returned to Baal worship (8:33-35).<\/p>\n<p>In the wake of Gideon’s era, his son Abimelech attempted to establish dynastic continuity by having himself installed as king at Shechem (9:1-6). With the support of his relatives at Shechem, Abimelech had all his brothers killed except Jotham (vv 4-5). After Abimelech’s coronation, Jotham set forth his opposition to his brother in a proverbial manner (vv 7-20), and went into hiding. Three years later Abimelech’s evil schemes entrapped him when the citizens of Shechem rebelled. He furiously attacked the city and destroyed it. A short time later, however, he was wounded at Thebez by a millstone dropped by a woman from the tower in which she had sought refuge from him. His servant put him out of his misery as per his request. This episode demonstrates how bad a despotic king may be. Again, God’s justice prevailed.<\/p>\n<h6>Tola (10:1-2)<\/h6>\n<p>Tola was a minor judge from Issachar who judged Israel for 23 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jair (10:3-5)<\/h6>\n<p>Jair was a minor judge from Gilead who judged Israel for 22 years.<\/p>\n<h6>Jephthah (10:6–12:7)<\/h6>\n<p>A recapitulation (10:6-16) of the cycle (idolatry, enemies, cry for help, momentary repentance) sets the introduction to the Jephthah narrative. Under attack from the Ammonites, the elders of Gilead requested help from Jephthah (10:17–11:8), who promised to help them on the condition that he remain their leader even after the war (vv 9-10). At a solemn ceremony he becomes their “head” at Mizpah (v 11). Jephthah opened up correspondence with the Ammonite king, in which he argued for Israel’s rights on the basis of the Israelites’ historic claim to the land as granted to them by the Lord (vv 12–27). Instead of going out immediately to war, he hoped that “the <span>Lord<\/span>, the Judge” would settle the dispute (v 27); but the Ammonite king was unimpressed. When the Spirit of God came over him, Jephthah led Israel into battle, but only after making a rash vow. He was victorious but found out that his vow to sacrifice whatever came first out of his house required him to sacrifice his daughter. Debate continues as to whether he offered her up as a human sacrifice or whether she sacrificed marriage (see discussion under Jephthah).<\/p>\n<p>The Ephraimites seemed to have had an insatiable desire for war. Earlier they had complained to Gideon, who successfully defused their threats (8:1-3). Jephthah fought them, however, because the Israelites living in Transjordan had been reviled as “renegades” (12:1-4). Forty-two thousand Ephraimites were killed by the fords of the Jordan in this civil war. Thereafter, Jephthah ruled for only six years.<\/p>\n<h6>Ibzan (12:8-10)<\/h6>\n<p>Ibzan was a minor judge from Bethlehem who ruled Israel for seven years.<\/p>\n<h6>Elon (12:11)<\/h6>\n<p>A minor judge from Zebulun, Elon ruled Israel for ten years.<\/p>\n<h6>Abdon (12:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>Abdon was a minor judge from Pirathon, the location of which is uncertain. He ruled for eight years.<\/p>\n<h6>Samson (13:1–16:31)<\/h6>\n<p>Samson’s greatness in the history of redemption is due to his miraculous birth (13:1-24), his service as a Nazirite (13:7; cf. Nm 6:1-21), the repeated overpowering by the Spirit of the Lord (Jgs 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14), the single-handed exploits against the Philistines (Ashkelon, 14:19; the fields, 15:1-6; Ramath Etam, 15:7-17; Gaza, 16:1-3, 23-30), and his occasional dependence on the Lord (15:18-19; 16:28-30). However, his personal life was flawed because of his weakness for Philistine women (chs 14, 16). Having been seduced by Delilah, he was imprisoned at Gaza. He died in the collapse of Dagon’s temple, praying that the Lord would permit him to get revenge (16:28-30). He was buried in his father’s tomb in the territory of Dan (16:31).<\/p>\n<h5>Epilogue (17–21)<\/h5>\n<p>The cyclical nature of Israel’s existence was without movement. Rest from enemies was always temporary. Israel was not yet ready for dynastic kingship, and whatever one may say of the three years of Abimelech, it was a kingship of the worst sort. Israel vacillated between idolatry and belief in the true Lord. The period of the judges was unstable, marked by petty individualism and provincialism. Yet God remained sovereign in the affairs of his people. The epilogue contains two stories: the story of Micah and the Danite migration (chs 17–18) and the civil war (chs 19–21). The epilogue is bound together by the phrase “In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25, <span>niv<\/span>). The symmetric recurrence (two times in each narrative) emphasizes the anarchy and inability of the tribes to unite together to serve God as a covenant people.<\/p>\n<h6>Micah and the Danites (17–18)<\/h6>\n<p>Micah was an Ephraimite who established a shrine and hired one of his own sons, and then a Levite from Bethlehem, to serve as its priests (ch 17). Unable to keep their patrimony, the Danites left to establish themselves at the foot of Mt Hermon. They took the idols and the Levite from Micah’s shrine and set up a cultic city at the newly established city of Dan, built on the ruins of Laish (ch 18). Thus, they set up a cultic center that rivaled the tabernacle at Shiloh (18:31).<\/p>\n<h6>The Civil War (19–21)<\/h6>\n<p>The people of Gibeah, which belonged to Benjamin, sexually abused the concubine of a Levite so that she died. Like the Levite of chapters 17 and 18, she was from Bethlehem (19:1). Dramatically, the Levite sent pieces of her corpse to all the tribes, which assembled against the Benjamites because they protected the criminals of Gibeah (19:29–20:19). In the ensuing battle the population of Benjamin was decimated (20:20-48). The 11 tribes gave them 400 virgins taken in a civil war against Jabesh-gilead (21:6-15). These were not enough, however. Because of the threat of the extinction of Benjamin and the vow not to give their daughters in marriage to any Benjamite, the Israelites devised a plan by which the Benjamites could take Israelite virgins dancing in the festival at Shiloh. Benjamin thus was able to rebuild its towns and settlements.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gideon; Jephthah; Samson.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","summary_en":"JUDGES, Book of Old Testament book named after the prominent leaders raised up by the Lord to deliver his people. The word “judge” in Hebrew also denotes the activity of governance, including warfare. Some scholars have argued that there were two kinds of judges: charismatic deliverers (or major judges) and local judicial sages (minor judges). It is uncertain why some judges receive cursory attention, whereas the exploits of other judges are given in great detail. Preview • Author • Date • Li...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24289,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Manoah","title_en":"Manoah","content_ro":"<h3>MANOAH<\/h3>\n<p>Danite from Zorah whose wife was barren. Through encounters with the Angel of the Lord, the couple learned that God was about to give them a son who would judge the Philistines and deliver Israel from its oppression. Manoah later fathered Samson, who fulfilled these promises (Jgs 13; 16:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MANOAH<\/h3>\n<p>Danite from Zorah whose wife was barren. Through encounters with the Angel of the Lord, the couple learned that God was about to give them a son who would judge the Philistines and deliver Israel from its oppression. Manoah later fathered Samson, who fulfilled these promises (Jgs 13; 16:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MANOAH Danite from Zorah whose wife was barren. Through encounters with the Angel of the Lord, the couple learned that God was about to give them a son who would judge the Philistines and deliver Israel from its oppression. Manoah later fathered Samson, who fulfilled these promises (Jgs 13; 16:31).","summary_en":"MANOAH Danite from Zorah whose wife was barren. Through encounters with the Angel of the Lord, the couple learned that God was about to give them a son who would judge the Philistines and deliver Israel from its oppression. Manoah later fathered Samson, who fulfilled these promises (Jgs 13; 16:31).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33704,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samson","title_en":"Samson","content_ro":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMSON<\/h3>\n<p>Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She reported this to her husband, Manoah, and Manoah prayed concerning this angelic visit (v 8). The angel of the Lord appeared again and gave instructions about the child who was to be born. Manoah made a burnt offering, and the angel of the Lord ascended to heaven in the smoke. Manoah feared that they would die, for he now realized that they had seen God (v 22). The child was born and the Lord blessed him as he grew. The Spirit of the Lord moved upon him in Mahaneh-dan (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Samson went to Timnah and saw a Philistine woman whom he wished to marry. The Lord was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines, and in Samson’s case these occasions came through Philistine women. When he and his parents went to Timnah to arrange the marriage, a lion came out of the vineyards, and Samson, upon whom the Spirit of the Lord came mightily, tore the lion in half. Later he found that a swarm of bees had made honey in the carcass of the lion (Jgs 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Samson made a feast at Timnah, as was the custom, and told the Philistine men a riddle that involved the lion and the honey. A wager was made on the riddle and the Philistines prevailed upon his wife to learn the answer and disclose it to them. When they came up with the answer, Samson knew what had happened, so he went out and killed 30 Philistine men to pay for his bet (Jgs 14:19). Samson went home, and his father-in-law gave Samson’s wife to Samson’s best man.<\/p>\n<p>When Samson returned to see his wife, he was not allowed to visit her, so he took 300 foxes, tied them in pairs tail to tail, fixed a torch to each pair, and turned them loose in the grainfields of the Philistines, so that the shocks and standing grain were burned. Consequently, the Philistines came and burned his wife and her father. In revenge, Samson went out and slaughtered many of them (Jgs 15:1-8).<\/p>\n<p>During these days, the Philistines came against Judah, and the people of Judah bound Samson with new ropes to turn him over to the Philistines. When they came to Lehi, where the Philistines were camped, the Spirit of the Lord came on him mightily. He snapped the ropes, seized the jawbone of a donkey, and killed 1,000 Philistines. Being very thirsty, he cried to the Lord, so God opened a spring of water at Lehi (Jgs 15:9-20).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s weakness for Philistine women continued to create trouble for both him and the Philistines. He went down to Gaza, where he became involved with a prostitute (Jgs 16:1). The men of the city learned that he was there and plotted to kill him at dawn, but he arose at midnight and walked off with the doors, posts, and bar of the city gate and put them on top of the hill before Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>Then he found Delilah, from the valley of Sorek. The Philistines enlisted her by bribery to find out the source of his strength (Jgs 16:4-5). She kept pestering him, so he told her that if they bound him with seven fresh bowstrings he would be as weak as other men. So she bound him and cried, “The Philistines are upon you.” He easily broke the bowstrings. In response to her continued questions, he kept lying to her about the secret of his strength. In succession, she bound him with new ropes and seven locks of his hair woven together and attached to a loom. Finally, she wore him down and he told her the truth. If someone shaved his head and broke his Nazirite vow, his strength would be gone. While Samson slept with his head on her knees, she called a barber, who shaved off his hair. This time when she cried, “The Philistines are upon you,” the Philistines seized him, gouged out his eyes, and took him to Gaza (v 21).<\/p>\n<p>At Gaza, Samson was bound with bronze fetters and forced to grind at a mill, during which time his hair began to grow again. At a time when the Philistines were having a great festival at the temple of their god, Dagon, they celebrated their victory over Samson and asked that he be brought so they could mock him. Some 3,000 people watched while Samson entertained them. At his request, Samson was placed between the two pillars supporting the temple. He asked the Lord for strength and pushed against the pillars, so that the entire building collapsed. Samson died with the Philistines as he had requested, but he killed more Philistines in this final act than he had previously (Jgs 16:1-30).<\/p>\n<p>Samson’s family came to retrieve his body, and they buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol in the tomb of his father, Manoah. He had served as “judge,” or leader, of Israel for 20 years (Jgs 16:31).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Judges, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","summary_en":"SAMSON Manoah’s son, from Dan’s tribe. His mother, whose name is not given in the Bible, had been barren. The angel of the Lord announced to her that she would have a son, who was to be a Nazirite all of his life (i.e., he was not to drink wine or strong drink, not to eat anything ceremonially unclean, and not to allow a razor to touch his head, Nm 6:1-6). She was also told that he would begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines, who had subjugated them for 40 years (Jgs 13:1-5). She repor...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
🔍
Niciun rezultat
Nu am găsit versete care să conțină textul căutat.
Judecătorii 16
📘 Info carte
Se încarcă...
📖 Resurse
Muzică de relaxareSelectează o piesă
0:00
Redare audio
0 piese
🍪 Folosim cookie-uri
Folosim cookie-uri esențiale pentru funcționarea platformei și cookie-uri de analiză pentru a îmbunătăți experiența ta.
Află mai multe
✝️
Logosasistentul Biserica Online
✝️
Bine ai venit! 👋
Sunt Logos, prietenul tău spiritual. Începe conversația — te ascult cu drag! ✨