2
,,Ia pe Aaron şi pe fiii lui împreună cu el, veşmintele, untdelemnul pentru ungere, viţelul pentru jertfa de ispăşire, cei doi berbeci şi coşul cu azimile,
3
şi cheamă toată adunarea la uşa cortului întâlnirii.``
4
Moise a făcut cum îi poruncise Domnul; şi adunarea s-a strâns la uşa cortului întâlnirii.
5
Moise a zis adunării: ,,Iată ce a poruncit Domnul să se facă.``
6
Moise a adus pe Aaron şi pe fiii lui, şi i-a spălat cu apă.
7
A pus tunica pe Aaron, l-a încins cu brâul, l-a îmbrăcat cu mantia, şi a pus pe el efodul, pe care l-a strâns cu brâul efodului cu care l-a îmbrăcat.
8
I-a pus pieptarul, şi a pus în pieptar Urim şi Tumim.
9
I-a pus mitra pe cap, iar pe partea dinainte a mitrei a aşezat placa de aur, cununa împărătească sfântă, cum poruncise lui Moise Domnul.
10
Moise a luat untdelemnul pentru ungere, a uns sfântul locaş şi toate lucrurile, cari erau în el, şi le-a sfinţit.
11
A stropit cu el altarul de şapte ori, şi a uns altarul şi toate uneltele lui, şi ligheanul cu piciorul lui, ca să le sfinţească.
12
Din untdelemnul pentru ungere a turnat pe capul lui Aaron, şi l-a uns, ca să-l sfinţească.
13
Moise a adus şi pe fiii lui Aaron; i-a îmbrăcat cu tunicile, i-a încins cu brâiele, şi le-a legat scufiile, cum poruncise lui Moise Domnul.
14
A apropiat apoi viţelul adus ca jertfă de ispăşire; şi Aaron şi fiii lui şi-au pus mânile pe capul viţelului adus ca jertfă de ispăşire.
15
Moise l-a junghiat, a luat sânge, şi a uns cu degetul coarnele altarului de jur împrejur, şi a curăţit altarul; celalt sânge l-a turnat la picioarele altarului, şi l-a sfinţit astfel, făcând ispăşire pentru el.
16
A luat apoi toată grăsimea care acopere măruntaiele, prapurul ficatului, cei doi rărunchi cu grăsimea lor, şi le-a ars pe altar.
17
Iar cealaltă parte care a mai rămas din viţel şi anume: pielea, carnea şi balega, le-a ars în foc, afară din tabără, cum poruncise lui Moise Domnul.
18
A apropiat apoi berbecele pentru arderea de tot; şi Aaron şi fiii lui şi-au pus mânile pe capul berbecelui.
19
Moise l-a junghiat, şi a stropit sângele pe altar de jur împrejur.
20
A tăiat berbecele în bucăţi, şi a ars capul, bucăţile şi grăsimea.
21
A spălat cu apă măruntaiele şi picioarele, şi a ars tot berbecele pe altar: aceasta a fost arderea de tot, o jertfă mistuită de foc, de un miros plăcut Domnului, cum poruncise lui Moise Domnul.
22
A adus apoi celalt berbece, adică berbecele pentru închinarea în slujba Domnului; şi Aaron şi fiii lui şi-au pus mânile pe capul berbecelui.
23
Moise a junghiat berbecele, a luat din sângele lui, şi a pus pe marginea urechii drepte a lui Aaron, pe degetul cel mare al mânii drepte şi pe degetul cel mare de la piciorul lui cel drept.
24
A adus pe fiii lui Aaron, a pus sânge pe marginea urechii lor drepte, pe degetul cel mare al mânii drepte şi pe degetul cel mare dela piciorul lor cel drept, iar sângele rămas l-a stropit pe altar de jur împrejur.
25
A luat grăsimea, coada, toată grăsimea care acopere măruntaiele, prapurul ficatului, cei doi rărunchi cu grăsimea lor, şi spata dreaptă;
26
a luat de asemenea din coşul cu azimi, pus înaintea Domnului, o turtă fără aluat, o turtă de pâne făcută cu untdelemn şi o plăcintă, şi le-a pus pe grăsime şi pe spata dreaptă.
27
Toate aceste lucruri le-a pus în mânile lui Aaron şi în mânile fiilor săi, şi le-a legănat într-o parte şi într-alta, ca dar legănat înaintea Domnului.
28
Apoi Moise le-a luat din mânile lor, şi le-a ars pe altar, deasupra arderii de tot; aceasta a fost jertfa de închinare în slujba Domnului, o jertfă mistuită de foc, de un miros plăcut Domnului.
29
Moise a luat pieptul berbecelui de închinare în slujba Domnului şi l-a legănat într-o parte şi într-alta ca dar legănat înaintea Domnului; aceasta a fost partea lui Moise, cum poruncise lui Moise Domnul.
30
Moise a luat din untdelemnul pentru ungere şi din sângele de pe altar; a stropit cu el pe Aaron şi veşmintele lui, pe fiii lui Aaron şi veşmintele lor; şi a sfinţit astfel pe Aaron şi veşmintele lui, pe fiii lui Aaron şi veşmintele lor împreună cu el.
31
Moise a zis lui Aaron şi fiilor lui: ,,Fierbeţi carnea la uşa cortului întâlnirii; acolo s-o mâncaţi, împreună cu pânea care este în coş pentru jertfa de închinare în slujba Domnului, cum am poruncit, zicând: ,Aaron şi fiii lui s-o mănânce.`
32
Iar partea care va mai rămânea din carne şi din pâne, s-o ardeţi în foc.
33
Timp de şapte zile, să nu ieşiţi de loc din uşa cortului întâlnirii, până se vor împlini zilele pentru închinarea voastră în slujba Domnului; căci şapte zile se vor întrebuinţa pentru închinarea voastră în slujba Domnului.
34
Ce s-a făcut azi, Domnul a poruncit să se facă şi deacum încolo ca ispăşire pentru voi.
35
Să rămâneţi dar şapte zile la uşa cortului întâlnirii, zi şi noapte, şi să păziţi poruncile Domnului, ca să nu muriţi; căci aşa mi s-a poruncit.``
36
Aaron şi fiii lui au făcut toate cele poruncite de Domnul prin Moise.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":40925,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","summary_en":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40986,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68551,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","summary_en":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68612,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96177,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","summary_en":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96238,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123803,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. Thereafter, Aaron was often at Moses’ side, speaking to the Israelite leaders and demanding that Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt (Exod 5:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>During the Israelites’ wilderness wanderings, God appointed Aaron and his sons to be set apart and dedicated as priests (Exod 28:1-5; 29:1-46; Lev 8:1-36). Thus, Aaron became Israel’s first high priest. Aaron’s role as high priest was especially prominent on the annual Day of Atonement, the only day when the high priest entered the Most Holy Place to purify it from the effects of Israel’s sins (Lev 16). Before the high priest could do so, however, he had to offer a sacrifice to atone for his own sins.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron was an imperfect leader. While Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the law from God, Aaron helped the people make an idol (Exod 32). When Moses returned, Aaron gave poor excuses and blamed the people. This event resulted in the death of three thousand Israelites, as well as a plague.<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his sister, Miriam, once wrongly challenged Moses’ authority, resulting in a temporary state of leprosy for Miriam (Num 12). Later, when other Levites challenged Aaron’s authority, God affirmed Aaron’s role by making his staff bud with almond blossoms (Num 17). However, because Moses and Aaron challenged God’s authority (Num 20:1-13), they both died in the wilderness without entering the Promised Land (Num 20:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus has become the Great High Priest, far surpassing Aaron’s priestly authority and effectiveness (see Heb 7–10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 4:14-17, 27-31; 6:20-27; 7:1-2; 28:1-5; 32:1-25; Num 12:1-12; 20:1-13, 22-29; Acts 7:39-41<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","summary_en":"Aaron Moses’ older brother, Aaron (see Exod 6:20; 7:7), played a crucial role in founding Israel and its institutions, particularly the priesthood. He first appears after Moses’ calling at the burning bush (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses was reluctant to accept his divine commission, claiming that he was unfit to lead the Israelites out of Egypt because his words tended to “get tangled” (Exod 4:10). Despite God’s assurances, Moses continued to object until God appointed Aaron to be Moses’ mouthpiece. ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123864,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23073,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Leviticus","title_en":"Book of Leviticus","content_ro":"<h3>LEVITICUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Third book of the OT, largely concerned with the duties of the Levitical priests.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>A traditional alternative title of Leviticus is the Third Book of Moses, which gives proper credit to the man who most deserves to be called its author. For though the book never says that Moses wrote down any of the material, it repeatedly states that God revealed the contents of Leviticus to Moses. It may be that Leviticus was not put into writing as soon as it was revealed, but there is little to commend the common critical view that it was composed nearly a thousand years after Moses. The spelling and grammar of Leviticus was, like other books of the OT, revised from time to time to make it understandable to later generations of Jewish readers, but that does not mean the essential content of the book was modified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>God revealed some of the laws in Leviticus by speaking to Moses from the tent of meeting, or tabernacle (Lv 1:1). Other laws were revealed on Mt Sinai (26:46). Such statements show that Moses learned the contents of Leviticus after the tabernacle had been built but before the Israelites left Mt Sinai. This fits in with Exodus 40:17, which says that the tabernacle was erected exactly a year after the Israelites left Egypt. They then spent another month at Sinai, during which time the laws in Leviticus were given to Moses. Then one month later (Nm 1:1) Moses was commanded to prepare the people to leave Sinai to conquer the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to give an exact date for the Israelite exodus from Egypt. Dates at the end of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or early in the 13th century are put forward by different scholars. Whichever view is adopted, the origin of Leviticus must be one year later than the exodus. But certainty about the absolute date of Leviticus is unimportant so long as the religious setting of the book is understood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>About 400 years before the exodus, God promised Abraham that his descendants would be very numerous and live in the land of Canaan. The family of Abraham multiplied, but as a result of famine they had to go and live in Egypt. Afraid of the Israelites, the rulers of Egypt turned them into slaves.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells how God, acting through Moses, brought the Israelites out of Egypt in a miraculous way. Moses led them to Mt Sinai, where God appeared in fire and smoke on the top of the mountain. Moses went up the mountain, and there God gave him the Ten Commandments and explained various laws. Through these acts God showed that he had chosen the nation of Israel to be his special holy people, different from all the other nations because they would show God’s character through their behavior (cf. Ex 19:5-6).<\/p>\n\n<p>God’s revelation at Sinai was unique and unrepeatable. But he disclosed to Moses that he wanted to live among the people of Israel permanently. They were told to build a portable royal palace that would be suitable for the divine King of kings. The building of this portable palace, traditionally called the tabernacle, is described in Exodus 35–40. When it was completed, the fire and cloud that had been seen on Mt Sinai appeared over the tabernacle as a sign that God was now dwelling in it (Ex 40:34-38).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus also tells how Moses was told to appoint his brother, Aaron, and Aaron’s sons to serve in the tabernacle as priests (Ex 28–29). Unfortunately, before the Israelites even began to build the tabernacle, they made a golden calf under Aaron’s leadership and started to worship it instead. The people were spared only as a result of Moses’ prayers. The book of Exodus therefore leaves the reader in suspense. The tabernacle has been built, but no one knows how to worship God in it. Though Aaron and his family are alive, we are left wondering whether they will still be allowed to lead the worship of God after the idolatry of the golden calf. The book of Leviticus answers this question.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments explain briefly and simply how God expects his people to behave. The first four commandments explain our duty toward our neighbor. The book of Leviticus follows a similar scheme. Chapters 1–17 show how God wanted Israel to worship him, while chapters 18–27 are mainly concerned with how people should behave toward each other. Whereas the Ten Commandments are general and can be applied quite easily to every society, the book of Leviticus is much more detailed and specifically geared to the special circumstances of ancient Israel. If modern readers are to profit from reading Leviticus, they must look behind the specific regulations to the underlying religious principles that do not change—in other words, to the theology of Leviticus.<\/p>\n<p>Four themes are very important in the theology of Leviticus: (1) the presence of God, (2) holiness, (3) sacrifice, and (4) the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>The Presence of God<\/h5>\n<p>God is always present with Israel in a real way. Sometimes his presence becomes visible in fire and smoke. But even when there is no miraculous sign, God is present. He is especially near when people worship him and offer sacrifice. The many animal sacrifices mentioned in the book are all brought to the Lord. When the animals are burnt, God is pleased with the smell (1:9). The priests who offer the sacrifices must be especially careful since they come closer to God than other people do. If they are careless in their duties and break God’s commands, they may die (10:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>God is present not just in worship but in all the ordinary duties of life. The recurring refrain of the later chapters, “I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, am your God” (18:2; 19:3), reminds the Israelites that every aspect of their life—religion (chs 21–24), sex (chs 18, 20), and relations with neighbors (chs 19, 25)—matters to God. The behavior of every Israelite must mirror that of God himself (20:7). The fear of God should prompt persons to help the blind, the deaf, the elderly, and the poor. Though such people may have no redress against unfair treatment, God cares about what happens to them (19:14, 32; 25:17, 36, 43).<\/p>\n<h5>Holiness<\/h5>\n<p>“You must be holy because I am holy” (11:44-45; 19:2; 20:26) could be termed the motto of Leviticus. “Holy,” “clean,” and “unclean” are common words in this book. God is the supremely holy person in the Bible, and holiness is the distinctive feature of his character. But earthly creatures can become holy too. To become holy, a person must be chosen by God and undergo the correct ceremony. Thus, at Sinai all Israel became a holy nation (Ex 19:6). Leviticus 8–9 explains how Aaron and his sons were ordained priests. This made them more holy than ordinary Israelites and therefore able to approach God and offer sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>Before anyone could become holy, they had to be “clean.” Cleanness in Leviticus means more than just being free of dirt, though this idea is included. It means being free of any abnormality. Whenever a person appears to fall short of perfection, he is described as “unclean.” Thus, the worst uncleanness is death, the very opposite of perfect life. But bleeding and other discharges and patchy skin diseases can make someone unclean. Animals that move in peculiar ways or have strange habits are also called unclean (Lv 11–15).<\/p>\n<p>Holiness and its opposite, uncleanness, can describe behavior as well as outward appearance. To be holy means to obey God and to act like God. Chapters 18–25 explain what holiness means in daily living. It means avoiding illicit sexual relations, caring for the poor, being honest, being fair, and loving your neighbor as yourself. This sort of behavior made Israel different from other peoples. Through their holiness the whole nation was supposed to demonstrate what God was like.<\/p>\n<h5>Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>In practice, unfortunately, the nation and the individuals within it rarely lived up to these ideals of holiness. Even if one did not commit a grievous sin, he or she was always liable to become unclean through contact with someone else, touching a dead animal, or in some other way. To maintain contact with a holy God, Israel’s sins and uncleanness had to be removed. This is what the sacrifices were for. They brought the forgiveness of sins and cleansing from uncleanness. Because sin affects relations between God and humans in various ways, Leviticus provides four different types of offerings to cover the different cases (Lv 1–6), and explains which sacrifices must be offered on which occasions (chs 7–17). All these rituals served to underline the seriousness of sin and helped preserve peace and fellowship between God and humanity.<\/p>\n<h5>The Sinai Covenant<\/h5>\n<p>All the laws contained in Leviticus form part of the Sinai covenant. They fill out and apply the principles of the Ten Commandments to the specific circumstances of ancient Israel. But they are more than a set of detailed rules, because they were given as part of the covenant. Three things have to be remembered about this covenant. First, the covenant created a personal relationship. The Lord became Israel’s king, and Israel became his special treasure set apart from the other nations of the world. Second, the covenant was based on God’s grace. He had made a promise to Abraham and, in saving the people from Egyptian slavery, he demonstrated his faithfulness to his promise and his love for Israel. Israel, in turn, was to show its gratitude for salvation by keeping the law. In no way did keeping the law earn them salvation. The law was given to a redeemed people. Finally, there were promises and threats built into the covenant (Lv 26). When the nation keeps the law, God promises they will enjoy good harvests, victory over their enemies, and God walking among them as he did in Eden. But if they reject God’s laws, terrible calamities will befall them: drought, famine, defeat, and even expulsion from the land God had promised to give them. These covenant curses form the background to the prophets’ warnings in later times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Kinds of Sacrifices (1–7)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters explain how the different kinds of sacrifices were to be offered. Most of these sacrifices also formed part of the regular worship in the tabernacle and later in the temple. But these chapters are concerned with personal offerings made when someone had sinned or made a vow or recovered from an illness. They explain what the offerer must do and what the priest must do, which parts of the animal must be burned, which parts may be eaten by the priest, and what is to be done with the blood of the animal.<\/p>\n<p>First, the offerer brought the animal into the outer court of the tabernacle. In the presence of the priest he put his hand on the head of the animal and explained why he was bringing the sacrifice. Then the worshiper killed the animal and chopped it up. The priest then took over. He caught the blood as it ran out of the dying animal and splashed it over the altar, and burned at least some of the animal on the great altar in the court of the tabernacle. These acts were performed with all the animal sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The special feature of the burnt offering (Lv 1) was that the whole animal, which had to be unblemished, was burned on the altar. All that the priest received was the skin. This was the most common sacrifice and was offered on many different occasions. In giving the whole animal to God in the sacrifice, the worshiper dedicated himself or herself totally to God’s service. “Lay your hand on its head so the <span>Lord<\/span> will accept it as your substitute, thus making atonement for you” (1:4, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 deals with the grain offering that always accompanied the burnt offering, but which could also be offered alone. Only part of this offering was burned; the rest was given to the priests to eat. The sacrifices formed an important part of their income.<\/p>\n<p>The peace (fellowship) offering’s special feature was that it was the only sacrifice where the offerer was allowed to eat part of the meat (Lv 3). Since in the earliest period Israelites were not permitted to kill animals except for sacrifice (ch 17), every meal that included meat had to be preceded by a peace offering. Leviticus 7:11-18 mentions three occasions that might prompt a peace-offering “thanksgiving”: when someone had something to praise God for or some sin to acknowledge; a vow promising a sacrifice if God would help one out of a difficulty; and a voluntary offering, made just because the person felt like it.<\/p>\n<p>Despite its name, the sin offering (Lv 4) was not the only offering dealing with sin. The other sacrifices also made the forgiveness of sin possible. The special significance of this sacrifice is emphasized by its unusual ritual. Instead of the blood being splashed over the altar, as in the other sacrifices, it was carefully smeared over the horns (corners) of the large altar in the courtyard (4:30) or over the small altar inside the holy place (v 18); once a year the blood was sprinkled over the ark in the Holy of Holies (16:14). Sin makes these different parts of the tabernacle unclean, unfit for the presence of God. And if God is not present in the tabernacle, worship has no point. The blood acts as a spiritual disinfectant, making the tabernacle clean and holy again. The sin offering was required whenever a person inadvertently broke one of the commandments or had suffered from a discharge or skin disease that made him or her unclean for a week or more (chs 12, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The guilt offering (5:14–6:7) was for more serious offenses, such as stealing holy property or deliberately using God’s name in a false oath. Such an offense was seen as robbing God. Therefore, a ram had to be offered as a sort of repayment. Whereas the poor person could offer just a bird for the other sacrifices, a ram was always required for a guilt offering.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 6:8–7:38 contain various other regulations about sacrifice, mainly specifying how much of each sacrifice the priests may eat and how much must be burned. One important rule for those who weren’t priests was that they were not to eat any fat or blood or eat sacrificial meat when they were unclean. If they did, they could be cut off from Israel (7:21-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Beginnings of the Priesthood (8–10)<\/h5>\n<p>Though Leviticus looks like a law book, because it contains so many regulations, it is really a history book describing the events that occurred about a year after the exodus. These chapters remind us of the true character of the book, for they tell how Moses ordained Aaron and his sons to be priests and how they offered their first sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Awed by the complexity of the ordination rituals, the modern reader may miss the marvel that Aaron should have been appointed high priest. For it was Aaron who had presided over the making of the golden calf and encouraged its worship (Ex 32). Had not Moses interceded for Israel, the whole nation would have been destroyed in the wilderness. Here the gracious forgiveness of God is most clear. Aaron, the chief sinner, is appointed chief mediator between God and the people. In the NT the career of Peter parallels Aaron’s in some respect.<\/p>\n<p>The greatness of the high priesthood is symbolized by the richly decorated robes Aaron wore. He and his sons were anointed with oil, and then Moses offered the three most common sacrifices on their behalf. They were confined to the court of the tabernacle for a week, and it seems likely that some of the rituals were repeated each day. By this means they were set apart from the rest of the people and entirely consecrated to their holy office.<\/p>\n<p>By the eighth day the process was complete. Now Aaron and his sons could offer sacrifice. This time, Moses only told them what to do; he did not offer sacrifices himself. Chapter 9 concludes by telling that, after they had offered the sacrifices for themselves and the people, fire came out of the tabernacle to burn up the offerings, thereby displaying God’s approval of their actions.<\/p>\n<p>After this, 10:1-2 presents an unexpected turn of events: “Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu put coals of fire in their incense burners and sprinkled incense over it. In this way, they disobeyed the <span>Lord<\/span> by burning before him a different kind of fire than he had commanded. So fire blazed forth from the <span>Lord<\/span>’s presence and burned them up, and they died there before the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). We do not know exactly what is meant by unholy fire. What is important is that the priests did something that God had not commanded them. The priests were supposed to set an example of total obedience to God’s word: this is the essence of holiness. Instead, they decided to follow their own plans and the consequences were dire.<\/p>\n<p>“Aaron was silent” (10:3). He was warned not even to mourn his sons’ deaths, lest he be suspected of condoning their sin (vv 6-7). Yet, despite his sons’ actions, Aaron and his surviving sons were confirmed as priests. They were reminded that their job was “to distinguish between what is holy and what is ordinary, what is ceremonially unclean and what is clean. And you must teach the Israelites all the laws that the <span>Lord<\/span> has given through Moses” (vv 10-11, <span>nlt<\/span>). The chapter closes on another note of grace. Although the priests made a mistake in offering one of the sin offerings, God would overlook it on this occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Cleanness and Uncleanness (11–16)<\/h5>\n<p>Distinguishing between the unclean and the clean is the theme of chapters 11–15, which prepare for the great Day of Atonement ceremonies of chapter 16. These are designed to cleanse the tabernacle from the uncleannesses of the people of Israel, thereby ensuring that God would continue to dwell among them (16:16, 19).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 11 discusses unclean animals, that is, animals that may not be eaten. Land animals are dealt with first, then fish and birds, and finally various miscellaneous creatures such as locusts and reptiles. To be clean, a land animal must have cloven hooves and chew the cud; that covers sheep and cattle but excludes pigs and camels. Fish must have fins and scales to be edible; without them, they count as unclean. Birds are clean unless they are birds of prey or scavengers that eat carrion. Insects that resemble birds in having wings and two large legs to hop with—for example, locusts—are clean. Other flying insects are unclean. All squirming creatures that dart hither and thither, such as lizards, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p>The reasons for declaring some animals clean and others unclean has long been a great puzzle. One suggestion is that the unclean animals were used in sacrifice by pagan worshipers or were thought to represent pagan deities. Certainly some unclean animals were used in pagan worship, but so were some clean ones, and that fact makes this explanation unsatisfactory. A second possibility is that the rules were hygienic: the clean animals were safe to eat whereas the unclean were not. There may be some truth in this explanation, but it is not completely adequate, for some clean animals can be harmful while some unclean ones are all right to eat.<\/p>\n<p>Unclean animals could not be eaten, but there was no harm in touching them. Israelites could ride camels, for example. However, all dead animals, unless killed for sacrifice, were unclean. Anyone who touched the carcass of a dead creature became unclean himself and therefore could not enter the tabernacle that day (11:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The following chapters deal with other conditions that make people unclean. Chapter 12 states that childbirth, or more precisely the bloody discharge that follows childbirth, makes a woman unclean. In OT theology death is the ultimate uncleanness, and conditions that are abnormal or threaten to lead to death are also unclean. When the discharge has ceased, after a fixed period the mother must bring a burnt offering and a sin offering to atone for any sin she may have committed, and to purify the tabernacle that may have been polluted through her uncleanness.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 13–14 deal with the uncleanness caused by skin diseases. Detailed regulations are given to distinguish between different diseases so that the priests can decide whether people are unclean or not. If they are unclean, they must live outside the camp until their skin heals. Traditionally the unclean skin disease has been called leprosy. But this is unlikely to be correct, since leprosy was unknown in the Middle East in OT times. Rather, it was any disease that led to the skin peeling off in patches, such as psoriasis. This explains why the disease might spontaneously get better.<\/p>\n<p>If the disease did retreat sufficiently, the sufferer could call the priest, and if the priest was satisfied with the cure, the sufferer could be readmitted to the community after following the rituals prescribed in chapter 14. This also explains what is to be done if patches of mold are found in pieces of cloth or house walls.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 15 explains how men can become unclean through discharges from their sexual organs, due to gonorrhea or sexual intercourse, while women become unclean through menstruation or a long-term discharge. Part of the purpose of these regulations is to prevent the sacred prostitution that was common in the ancient world. Since sexual intercourse made people unclean, they could not go to worship immediately afterward. Further, the uncleanness of menstruation should have discouraged men from being overfamiliar with unmarried girls.<\/p>\n<p>The broad scope of these uncleanness regulations meant that nearly every Israelite would be unclean at some time in his or her life. This uncleanness could contaminate God’s dwelling place, the tabernacle, making it impossible for God to continue to live there. To avert this catastrophe, a Day of Atonement was held once a year. This is the most solemn day in the Jewish calendar, and the ceremonies for it are described in detail in Leviticus 16.<\/p>\n<p>There are three acts on the Day of Atonement that are described in this chapter. There was first the special sin offering offered by the high priest, in the course of which the outer altar of burnt offering, the incense altar inside the Holy Place, and finally the ark itself in the Holy of Holies were sprinkled with blood to purify each part of the tabernacle. This was the one occasion in the year when the high priest entered the presence of God in the Holy of Holies, and elaborate precautions were taken to screen the high priest from God’s holiness (16:2-4, 11-17). There was another public act that pictured the sins of Israel being taken away. A goat was chosen by lot. Then the high priest placed his hands on its head and recited over it the nation’s sin. This goat was then led away and driven into a solitary place; in later times it was pushed over a precipice. These actions pictured Israel’s sins being carried away, so that they could not disturb the peace between God and his people. The third important feature of the Day of Atonement was public prayer and fasting. This showed that sin could not be eliminated without effort, but only through a complete change of heart by every person in Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Rules for Daily Life (17–25)<\/h5>\n<p>Whereas the opening chapters of Leviticus are entirely concerned with the Godward side of religion, the later chapters are more concerned with practical religious duties toward other persons. However, chapter 17 repeats some of the rules about sacrifice and makes one new one: that all sacrifice must be offered in the tabernacle courtyard. This was to prevent people from secretly worshiping heathen gods.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 18 and 20 spell out the rules governing sexual relations in ancient Israel. Chapter 19 gives further examples of what holiness means in everyday life. Positively, it means helping the poor by leaving some grain behind in the fields at harvesttime (19:9-10); paying people promptly (v 13); avoiding gossip (v 16); honoring the elderly, helping the immigrant, and being honest in business (vv 32-36). But holiness goes beyond deeds and words. It should transform thoughts: “Never seek revenge or bear a grudge against anyone, but love your neighbor as yourself” (v 18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 21 and 22 discuss how the holy men of Israel, the priests, are to demonstrate their holiness in their lives. First, they must avoid approaching dead bodies unless the dead are very close relatives. Second, they must marry women of known moral uprightness. Third, deformed priests—for example, a blind or lame priest—may never offer sacrifices. Here the principle is plain that men who represent God must reflect the perfection of God in normal, healthy bodies. However, those who are temporarily unclean, through skin disease or a discharge, may resume their duties as soon as their uncleanness is cured.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 23 lists the main holy days and the sacrifices that had to be offered on each one. Chapter 24 deals with the lamp and special bread kept within the tabernacle. A case of blasphemy that occurred in the wilderness is mentioned. Because the man actually used the sacred name of God in a curse, he was sentenced to death.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 deals with the jubilee year. In every society people fall into debt. Today the effects of debt are somewhat cushioned by state welfare payments and bank overdrafts, but ancient societies did not have such aid available. People in debt had to sell off their family land, on which they depended for their living, or in more serious situations, they could sell themselves into slavery. Once impoverished in this way, it was exceedingly difficult ever to recover one’s land or one’s freedom. But this law in Leviticus provided an escape. Every 50 years was a jubilee. In this year every slave was released from bondage, and everyone who had sold his land was given it back free. Thus, everyone who fell into debt was given a chance to make a fresh start. Though this law was primarily designed to help the poor, it also served to prevent the accumulation of too much wealth in the hands of a few rich men.<\/p>\n<h5>Blessings, Curses, and Vows (26–27)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapter 26 contains the blessings and curses that traditionally concluded a covenant. Israel is promised great material and spiritual prosperity if she keeps the law but is warned that tragedy will befall if she is disobedient.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 27 is an appendix dealing with vows and other gifts made to God. When a person promises to give something to God, it becomes holy and cannot be retracted unless a suitable payment is made instead. This chapter sets out the rules about such dedications.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron; Moses; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEVITICUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Third book of the OT, largely concerned with the duties of the Levitical priests.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>A traditional alternative title of Leviticus is the Third Book of Moses, which gives proper credit to the man who most deserves to be called its author. For though the book never says that Moses wrote down any of the material, it repeatedly states that God revealed the contents of Leviticus to Moses. It may be that Leviticus was not put into writing as soon as it was revealed, but there is little to commend the common critical view that it was composed nearly a thousand years after Moses. The spelling and grammar of Leviticus was, like other books of the OT, revised from time to time to make it understandable to later generations of Jewish readers, but that does not mean the essential content of the book was modified.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>God revealed some of the laws in Leviticus by speaking to Moses from the tent of meeting, or tabernacle (Lv 1:1). Other laws were revealed on Mt Sinai (26:46). Such statements show that Moses learned the contents of Leviticus after the tabernacle had been built but before the Israelites left Mt Sinai. This fits in with Exodus 40:17, which says that the tabernacle was erected exactly a year after the Israelites left Egypt. They then spent another month at Sinai, during which time the laws in Leviticus were given to Moses. Then one month later (Nm 1:1) Moses was commanded to prepare the people to leave Sinai to conquer the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to give an exact date for the Israelite exodus from Egypt. Dates at the end of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or early in the 13th century are put forward by different scholars. Whichever view is adopted, the origin of Leviticus must be one year later than the exodus. But certainty about the absolute date of Leviticus is unimportant so long as the religious setting of the book is understood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>About 400 years before the exodus, God promised Abraham that his descendants would be very numerous and live in the land of Canaan. The family of Abraham multiplied, but as a result of famine they had to go and live in Egypt. Afraid of the Israelites, the rulers of Egypt turned them into slaves.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells how God, acting through Moses, brought the Israelites out of Egypt in a miraculous way. Moses led them to Mt Sinai, where God appeared in fire and smoke on the top of the mountain. Moses went up the mountain, and there God gave him the Ten Commandments and explained various laws. Through these acts God showed that he had chosen the nation of Israel to be his special holy people, different from all the other nations because they would show God’s character through their behavior (cf. Ex 19:5-6).<\/p>\n\n<p>God’s revelation at Sinai was unique and unrepeatable. But he disclosed to Moses that he wanted to live among the people of Israel permanently. They were told to build a portable royal palace that would be suitable for the divine King of kings. The building of this portable palace, traditionally called the tabernacle, is described in Exodus 35–40. When it was completed, the fire and cloud that had been seen on Mt Sinai appeared over the tabernacle as a sign that God was now dwelling in it (Ex 40:34-38).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus also tells how Moses was told to appoint his brother, Aaron, and Aaron’s sons to serve in the tabernacle as priests (Ex 28–29). Unfortunately, before the Israelites even began to build the tabernacle, they made a golden calf under Aaron’s leadership and started to worship it instead. The people were spared only as a result of Moses’ prayers. The book of Exodus therefore leaves the reader in suspense. The tabernacle has been built, but no one knows how to worship God in it. Though Aaron and his family are alive, we are left wondering whether they will still be allowed to lead the worship of God after the idolatry of the golden calf. The book of Leviticus answers this question.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments explain briefly and simply how God expects his people to behave. The first four commandments explain our duty toward our neighbor. The book of Leviticus follows a similar scheme. Chapters 1–17 show how God wanted Israel to worship him, while chapters 18–27 are mainly concerned with how people should behave toward each other. Whereas the Ten Commandments are general and can be applied quite easily to every society, the book of Leviticus is much more detailed and specifically geared to the special circumstances of ancient Israel. If modern readers are to profit from reading Leviticus, they must look behind the specific regulations to the underlying religious principles that do not change—in other words, to the theology of Leviticus.<\/p>\n<p>Four themes are very important in the theology of Leviticus: (1) the presence of God, (2) holiness, (3) sacrifice, and (4) the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<h5>The Presence of God<\/h5>\n<p>God is always present with Israel in a real way. Sometimes his presence becomes visible in fire and smoke. But even when there is no miraculous sign, God is present. He is especially near when people worship him and offer sacrifice. The many animal sacrifices mentioned in the book are all brought to the Lord. When the animals are burnt, God is pleased with the smell (1:9). The priests who offer the sacrifices must be especially careful since they come closer to God than other people do. If they are careless in their duties and break God’s commands, they may die (10:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>God is present not just in worship but in all the ordinary duties of life. The recurring refrain of the later chapters, “I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, am your God” (18:2; 19:3), reminds the Israelites that every aspect of their life—religion (chs 21–24), sex (chs 18, 20), and relations with neighbors (chs 19, 25)—matters to God. The behavior of every Israelite must mirror that of God himself (20:7). The fear of God should prompt persons to help the blind, the deaf, the elderly, and the poor. Though such people may have no redress against unfair treatment, God cares about what happens to them (19:14, 32; 25:17, 36, 43).<\/p>\n<h5>Holiness<\/h5>\n<p>“You must be holy because I am holy” (11:44-45; 19:2; 20:26) could be termed the motto of Leviticus. “Holy,” “clean,” and “unclean” are common words in this book. God is the supremely holy person in the Bible, and holiness is the distinctive feature of his character. But earthly creatures can become holy too. To become holy, a person must be chosen by God and undergo the correct ceremony. Thus, at Sinai all Israel became a holy nation (Ex 19:6). Leviticus 8–9 explains how Aaron and his sons were ordained priests. This made them more holy than ordinary Israelites and therefore able to approach God and offer sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>Before anyone could become holy, they had to be “clean.” Cleanness in Leviticus means more than just being free of dirt, though this idea is included. It means being free of any abnormality. Whenever a person appears to fall short of perfection, he is described as “unclean.” Thus, the worst uncleanness is death, the very opposite of perfect life. But bleeding and other discharges and patchy skin diseases can make someone unclean. Animals that move in peculiar ways or have strange habits are also called unclean (Lv 11–15).<\/p>\n<p>Holiness and its opposite, uncleanness, can describe behavior as well as outward appearance. To be holy means to obey God and to act like God. Chapters 18–25 explain what holiness means in daily living. It means avoiding illicit sexual relations, caring for the poor, being honest, being fair, and loving your neighbor as yourself. This sort of behavior made Israel different from other peoples. Through their holiness the whole nation was supposed to demonstrate what God was like.<\/p>\n<h5>Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>In practice, unfortunately, the nation and the individuals within it rarely lived up to these ideals of holiness. Even if one did not commit a grievous sin, he or she was always liable to become unclean through contact with someone else, touching a dead animal, or in some other way. To maintain contact with a holy God, Israel’s sins and uncleanness had to be removed. This is what the sacrifices were for. They brought the forgiveness of sins and cleansing from uncleanness. Because sin affects relations between God and humans in various ways, Leviticus provides four different types of offerings to cover the different cases (Lv 1–6), and explains which sacrifices must be offered on which occasions (chs 7–17). All these rituals served to underline the seriousness of sin and helped preserve peace and fellowship between God and humanity.<\/p>\n<h5>The Sinai Covenant<\/h5>\n<p>All the laws contained in Leviticus form part of the Sinai covenant. They fill out and apply the principles of the Ten Commandments to the specific circumstances of ancient Israel. But they are more than a set of detailed rules, because they were given as part of the covenant. Three things have to be remembered about this covenant. First, the covenant created a personal relationship. The Lord became Israel’s king, and Israel became his special treasure set apart from the other nations of the world. Second, the covenant was based on God’s grace. He had made a promise to Abraham and, in saving the people from Egyptian slavery, he demonstrated his faithfulness to his promise and his love for Israel. Israel, in turn, was to show its gratitude for salvation by keeping the law. In no way did keeping the law earn them salvation. The law was given to a redeemed people. Finally, there were promises and threats built into the covenant (Lv 26). When the nation keeps the law, God promises they will enjoy good harvests, victory over their enemies, and God walking among them as he did in Eden. But if they reject God’s laws, terrible calamities will befall them: drought, famine, defeat, and even expulsion from the land God had promised to give them. These covenant curses form the background to the prophets’ warnings in later times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Kinds of Sacrifices (1–7)<\/h5>\n<p>These chapters explain how the different kinds of sacrifices were to be offered. Most of these sacrifices also formed part of the regular worship in the tabernacle and later in the temple. But these chapters are concerned with personal offerings made when someone had sinned or made a vow or recovered from an illness. They explain what the offerer must do and what the priest must do, which parts of the animal must be burned, which parts may be eaten by the priest, and what is to be done with the blood of the animal.<\/p>\n<p>First, the offerer brought the animal into the outer court of the tabernacle. In the presence of the priest he put his hand on the head of the animal and explained why he was bringing the sacrifice. Then the worshiper killed the animal and chopped it up. The priest then took over. He caught the blood as it ran out of the dying animal and splashed it over the altar, and burned at least some of the animal on the great altar in the court of the tabernacle. These acts were performed with all the animal sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The special feature of the burnt offering (Lv 1) was that the whole animal, which had to be unblemished, was burned on the altar. All that the priest received was the skin. This was the most common sacrifice and was offered on many different occasions. In giving the whole animal to God in the sacrifice, the worshiper dedicated himself or herself totally to God’s service. “Lay your hand on its head so the <span>Lord<\/span> will accept it as your substitute, thus making atonement for you” (1:4, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 deals with the grain offering that always accompanied the burnt offering, but which could also be offered alone. Only part of this offering was burned; the rest was given to the priests to eat. The sacrifices formed an important part of their income.<\/p>\n<p>The peace (fellowship) offering’s special feature was that it was the only sacrifice where the offerer was allowed to eat part of the meat (Lv 3). Since in the earliest period Israelites were not permitted to kill animals except for sacrifice (ch 17), every meal that included meat had to be preceded by a peace offering. Leviticus 7:11-18 mentions three occasions that might prompt a peace-offering “thanksgiving”: when someone had something to praise God for or some sin to acknowledge; a vow promising a sacrifice if God would help one out of a difficulty; and a voluntary offering, made just because the person felt like it.<\/p>\n<p>Despite its name, the sin offering (Lv 4) was not the only offering dealing with sin. The other sacrifices also made the forgiveness of sin possible. The special significance of this sacrifice is emphasized by its unusual ritual. Instead of the blood being splashed over the altar, as in the other sacrifices, it was carefully smeared over the horns (corners) of the large altar in the courtyard (4:30) or over the small altar inside the holy place (v 18); once a year the blood was sprinkled over the ark in the Holy of Holies (16:14). Sin makes these different parts of the tabernacle unclean, unfit for the presence of God. And if God is not present in the tabernacle, worship has no point. The blood acts as a spiritual disinfectant, making the tabernacle clean and holy again. The sin offering was required whenever a person inadvertently broke one of the commandments or had suffered from a discharge or skin disease that made him or her unclean for a week or more (chs 12, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The guilt offering (5:14–6:7) was for more serious offenses, such as stealing holy property or deliberately using God’s name in a false oath. Such an offense was seen as robbing God. Therefore, a ram had to be offered as a sort of repayment. Whereas the poor person could offer just a bird for the other sacrifices, a ram was always required for a guilt offering.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 6:8–7:38 contain various other regulations about sacrifice, mainly specifying how much of each sacrifice the priests may eat and how much must be burned. One important rule for those who weren’t priests was that they were not to eat any fat or blood or eat sacrificial meat when they were unclean. If they did, they could be cut off from Israel (7:21-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Beginnings of the Priesthood (8–10)<\/h5>\n<p>Though Leviticus looks like a law book, because it contains so many regulations, it is really a history book describing the events that occurred about a year after the exodus. These chapters remind us of the true character of the book, for they tell how Moses ordained Aaron and his sons to be priests and how they offered their first sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Awed by the complexity of the ordination rituals, the modern reader may miss the marvel that Aaron should have been appointed high priest. For it was Aaron who had presided over the making of the golden calf and encouraged its worship (Ex 32). Had not Moses interceded for Israel, the whole nation would have been destroyed in the wilderness. Here the gracious forgiveness of God is most clear. Aaron, the chief sinner, is appointed chief mediator between God and the people. In the NT the career of Peter parallels Aaron’s in some respect.<\/p>\n<p>The greatness of the high priesthood is symbolized by the richly decorated robes Aaron wore. He and his sons were anointed with oil, and then Moses offered the three most common sacrifices on their behalf. They were confined to the court of the tabernacle for a week, and it seems likely that some of the rituals were repeated each day. By this means they were set apart from the rest of the people and entirely consecrated to their holy office.<\/p>\n<p>By the eighth day the process was complete. Now Aaron and his sons could offer sacrifice. This time, Moses only told them what to do; he did not offer sacrifices himself. Chapter 9 concludes by telling that, after they had offered the sacrifices for themselves and the people, fire came out of the tabernacle to burn up the offerings, thereby displaying God’s approval of their actions.<\/p>\n<p>After this, 10:1-2 presents an unexpected turn of events: “Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu put coals of fire in their incense burners and sprinkled incense over it. In this way, they disobeyed the <span>Lord<\/span> by burning before him a different kind of fire than he had commanded. So fire blazed forth from the <span>Lord<\/span>’s presence and burned them up, and they died there before the <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>). We do not know exactly what is meant by unholy fire. What is important is that the priests did something that God had not commanded them. The priests were supposed to set an example of total obedience to God’s word: this is the essence of holiness. Instead, they decided to follow their own plans and the consequences were dire.<\/p>\n<p>“Aaron was silent” (10:3). He was warned not even to mourn his sons’ deaths, lest he be suspected of condoning their sin (vv 6-7). Yet, despite his sons’ actions, Aaron and his surviving sons were confirmed as priests. They were reminded that their job was “to distinguish between what is holy and what is ordinary, what is ceremonially unclean and what is clean. And you must teach the Israelites all the laws that the <span>Lord<\/span> has given through Moses” (vv 10-11, <span>nlt<\/span>). The chapter closes on another note of grace. Although the priests made a mistake in offering one of the sin offerings, God would overlook it on this occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Cleanness and Uncleanness (11–16)<\/h5>\n<p>Distinguishing between the unclean and the clean is the theme of chapters 11–15, which prepare for the great Day of Atonement ceremonies of chapter 16. These are designed to cleanse the tabernacle from the uncleannesses of the people of Israel, thereby ensuring that God would continue to dwell among them (16:16, 19).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 11 discusses unclean animals, that is, animals that may not be eaten. Land animals are dealt with first, then fish and birds, and finally various miscellaneous creatures such as locusts and reptiles. To be clean, a land animal must have cloven hooves and chew the cud; that covers sheep and cattle but excludes pigs and camels. Fish must have fins and scales to be edible; without them, they count as unclean. Birds are clean unless they are birds of prey or scavengers that eat carrion. Insects that resemble birds in having wings and two large legs to hop with—for example, locusts—are clean. Other flying insects are unclean. All squirming creatures that dart hither and thither, such as lizards, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p>The reasons for declaring some animals clean and others unclean has long been a great puzzle. One suggestion is that the unclean animals were used in sacrifice by pagan worshipers or were thought to represent pagan deities. Certainly some unclean animals were used in pagan worship, but so were some clean ones, and that fact makes this explanation unsatisfactory. A second possibility is that the rules were hygienic: the clean animals were safe to eat whereas the unclean were not. There may be some truth in this explanation, but it is not completely adequate, for some clean animals can be harmful while some unclean ones are all right to eat.<\/p>\n<p>Unclean animals could not be eaten, but there was no harm in touching them. Israelites could ride camels, for example. However, all dead animals, unless killed for sacrifice, were unclean. Anyone who touched the carcass of a dead creature became unclean himself and therefore could not enter the tabernacle that day (11:39-40).<\/p>\n<p>The following chapters deal with other conditions that make people unclean. Chapter 12 states that childbirth, or more precisely the bloody discharge that follows childbirth, makes a woman unclean. In OT theology death is the ultimate uncleanness, and conditions that are abnormal or threaten to lead to death are also unclean. When the discharge has ceased, after a fixed period the mother must bring a burnt offering and a sin offering to atone for any sin she may have committed, and to purify the tabernacle that may have been polluted through her uncleanness.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 13–14 deal with the uncleanness caused by skin diseases. Detailed regulations are given to distinguish between different diseases so that the priests can decide whether people are unclean or not. If they are unclean, they must live outside the camp until their skin heals. Traditionally the unclean skin disease has been called leprosy. But this is unlikely to be correct, since leprosy was unknown in the Middle East in OT times. Rather, it was any disease that led to the skin peeling off in patches, such as psoriasis. This explains why the disease might spontaneously get better.<\/p>\n<p>If the disease did retreat sufficiently, the sufferer could call the priest, and if the priest was satisfied with the cure, the sufferer could be readmitted to the community after following the rituals prescribed in chapter 14. This also explains what is to be done if patches of mold are found in pieces of cloth or house walls.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 15 explains how men can become unclean through discharges from their sexual organs, due to gonorrhea or sexual intercourse, while women become unclean through menstruation or a long-term discharge. Part of the purpose of these regulations is to prevent the sacred prostitution that was common in the ancient world. Since sexual intercourse made people unclean, they could not go to worship immediately afterward. Further, the uncleanness of menstruation should have discouraged men from being overfamiliar with unmarried girls.<\/p>\n<p>The broad scope of these uncleanness regulations meant that nearly every Israelite would be unclean at some time in his or her life. This uncleanness could contaminate God’s dwelling place, the tabernacle, making it impossible for God to continue to live there. To avert this catastrophe, a Day of Atonement was held once a year. This is the most solemn day in the Jewish calendar, and the ceremonies for it are described in detail in Leviticus 16.<\/p>\n<p>There are three acts on the Day of Atonement that are described in this chapter. There was first the special sin offering offered by the high priest, in the course of which the outer altar of burnt offering, the incense altar inside the Holy Place, and finally the ark itself in the Holy of Holies were sprinkled with blood to purify each part of the tabernacle. This was the one occasion in the year when the high priest entered the presence of God in the Holy of Holies, and elaborate precautions were taken to screen the high priest from God’s holiness (16:2-4, 11-17). There was another public act that pictured the sins of Israel being taken away. A goat was chosen by lot. Then the high priest placed his hands on its head and recited over it the nation’s sin. This goat was then led away and driven into a solitary place; in later times it was pushed over a precipice. These actions pictured Israel’s sins being carried away, so that they could not disturb the peace between God and his people. The third important feature of the Day of Atonement was public prayer and fasting. This showed that sin could not be eliminated without effort, but only through a complete change of heart by every person in Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Rules for Daily Life (17–25)<\/h5>\n<p>Whereas the opening chapters of Leviticus are entirely concerned with the Godward side of religion, the later chapters are more concerned with practical religious duties toward other persons. However, chapter 17 repeats some of the rules about sacrifice and makes one new one: that all sacrifice must be offered in the tabernacle courtyard. This was to prevent people from secretly worshiping heathen gods.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 18 and 20 spell out the rules governing sexual relations in ancient Israel. Chapter 19 gives further examples of what holiness means in everyday life. Positively, it means helping the poor by leaving some grain behind in the fields at harvesttime (19:9-10); paying people promptly (v 13); avoiding gossip (v 16); honoring the elderly, helping the immigrant, and being honest in business (vv 32-36). But holiness goes beyond deeds and words. It should transform thoughts: “Never seek revenge or bear a grudge against anyone, but love your neighbor as yourself” (v 18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 21 and 22 discuss how the holy men of Israel, the priests, are to demonstrate their holiness in their lives. First, they must avoid approaching dead bodies unless the dead are very close relatives. Second, they must marry women of known moral uprightness. Third, deformed priests—for example, a blind or lame priest—may never offer sacrifices. Here the principle is plain that men who represent God must reflect the perfection of God in normal, healthy bodies. However, those who are temporarily unclean, through skin disease or a discharge, may resume their duties as soon as their uncleanness is cured.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 23 lists the main holy days and the sacrifices that had to be offered on each one. Chapter 24 deals with the lamp and special bread kept within the tabernacle. A case of blasphemy that occurred in the wilderness is mentioned. Because the man actually used the sacred name of God in a curse, he was sentenced to death.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 deals with the jubilee year. In every society people fall into debt. Today the effects of debt are somewhat cushioned by state welfare payments and bank overdrafts, but ancient societies did not have such aid available. People in debt had to sell off their family land, on which they depended for their living, or in more serious situations, they could sell themselves into slavery. Once impoverished in this way, it was exceedingly difficult ever to recover one’s land or one’s freedom. But this law in Leviticus provided an escape. Every 50 years was a jubilee. In this year every slave was released from bondage, and everyone who had sold his land was given it back free. Thus, everyone who fell into debt was given a chance to make a fresh start. Though this law was primarily designed to help the poor, it also served to prevent the accumulation of too much wealth in the hands of a few rich men.<\/p>\n<h5>Blessings, Curses, and Vows (26–27)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapter 26 contains the blessings and curses that traditionally concluded a covenant. Israel is promised great material and spiritual prosperity if she keeps the law but is warned that tragedy will befall if she is disobedient.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 27 is an appendix dealing with vows and other gifts made to God. When a person promises to give something to God, it becomes holy and cannot be retracted unless a suitable payment is made instead. This chapter sets out the rules about such dedications.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron; Moses; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEVITICUS, Book of Third book of the OT, largely concerned with the duties of the Levitical priests. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Purpose and Theology • Content Author A traditional alternative title of Leviticus is the Third Book of Moses, which gives proper credit to the man who most deserves to be called its author. For though the book never says that Moses wrote down any of the material, it repeatedly states that God revealed the contents of Leviticus to Moses. It may be that Le...","summary_en":"LEVITICUS, Book of Third book of the OT, largely concerned with the duties of the Levitical priests. Preview • Author • Date • Background • Purpose and Theology • Content Author A traditional alternative title of Leviticus is the Third Book of Moses, which gives proper credit to the man who most deserves to be called its author. For though the book never says that Moses wrote down any of the material, it repeatedly states that God revealed the contents of Leviticus to Moses. It may be that Le...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28543,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ordination Ordain","title_en":"Ordination Ordain","content_ro":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORDAIN, ORDINATION<\/h3>\n<p>The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Levi (Dt 33:8-11; Jgs 17:13). Through all subsequent clan rivalries—“Zadokite,” “Aaronic,” “Hasmonean”—this claim to inherited privilege persisted. Divine appointment through Levi was traced back to Moses (Ex 4:14; 28:41; 29:9), claimed for the Ephraimite Samuel (1 Chr 6:28), and still celebrated by Sirach (Ecclus 45:6-22, c. 180 <span>BC<\/span>). As the book of Hebrews states (Heb 5:1, 4), no one takes the honor upon himself; he is “called by God, as Aaron was,” by birth into an inherited status.<\/p>\n<p>The first Levites were presented at the tabernacle in the presence of the people, and acknowledged by “the laying on of hands” (Nm 8:10, 14-18). Similarly, Moses received instructions for the week-long consecration of Aaron and his sons, with elaborate sacrifices, vestments, anointing, and ritual (Ex 29; Lv 8). In both cases, the careful preservation of these detailed instructions suggests that the ceremonies were retained, to some degree, in later years, though no repetition is recorded.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside the priests there existed establishments of recognized prophets, or prophetic communities, sometimes with royal patronage (1 Sm 10:5; 1 Kgs 1:9-10; 18:17-19; 20:35; 22:5-28; 2 Kgs 2:3-7; 23:2). The line of prophecy was also traced back to earliest days (see Gn 20:7; Dt 34:10; Jgs 4:4; Jer 7:25). The phrase “sons of the prophets,” and an obscure hint in Jeremiah 35:4, may imply that prophecy, like priesthood, was sometimes hereditary, but the manner of appointment and installation is unknown. The outstanding prophets were frequently opposed to the prophetic “schools” (Elijah, 1 Kgs 17; Micaiah, 1 Kgs 22:5-28; Jeremiah, Jer 27:14-16; 28). Such men were appointed by direct, divine call (1 Kgs 17:1; 21:17; Is 6; Jer 1; Am 7:15), though by God’s instruction Elisha was called and anointed by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16; cf. Is 61:1). Authentication of the prophet’s message lay not in appropriate installation ceremonies but in its self-evident truth; in the case of predictions, in their fulfillment (1 Kgs 22:13-14, 26-28; Jer 28:5-9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Christian ordination is also a matter of divine choice. Neither Jesus, nor any disciple, came from the professional religious classes. In ordaining the 12 apostles, Jesus called to him those whom he desired, later insisting, “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you” (Jn 15:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). The selection of Matthias rested upon prayer and the divine lot (Acts 1:24-26). Paul contended that he had been set apart by God before he was born and did not receive his apostleship from or through men (Gal 1:1, 15). Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by direction of the Spirit during worship, probably through a Christian prophet. Similarly, Timothy was first chosen as assistant to Paul by prophetic utterances that pointed to him (1 Tm 1:18; 4:14).<\/p>\n<p>At Corinth, various ministries of speaking, teaching, healing, and administration were directly conferred as gifts of the Spirit, who apportions as he sees fit (1 Cor 12:8-11, 28; cf. Eph 4:11). Elders of the church at Ephesus were made guardians of the flock by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). The divine prerogative is everywhere clear: any attempt to obtain the privilege of ministry by personal initiative and unworthy means meets with sharpest condemnation (8:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the assembled church “nominated” Barsabbas and Matthias before submitting the final choice to God (Acts 1:15, 23). The believers chose the seven servers, then presented them to the apostles (6:2-6). An assembled church, at the Spirit’s command, commissioned and sent off Paul and Barnabas (13:3). Paul and Barnabas themselves appointed elders (14:23), as Titus is instructed to do (Ti 1:5), and probably Timothy also (1 Tm 5:22). Elders at Lystra and Iconium, with Paul, obeying a Christian prophet, appointed Timothy to leadership (1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6). By the time letters were written to Timothy and Titus, elaborate lists of qualifications were required for church leaders (1 Tm 3:1-13; 2 Tm 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>The congregation of believers also participated in selecting leaders. This could have involved prayer, fasting, and casting lots (Acts 1:26; 6:6; 13:2-3; 14:23); sometimes “selection by hands” (Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">cheirotonein<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meaning “election by raising hands,” later “selection by pointing to”; cf. Acts 14:23; 2 Cor 8:19); and sometimes selection by group choice (Acts 1:15, 23; 6:2-5; 13:3; 16:2; 1 Tm 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","summary_en":"ORDAIN, ORDINATION The act of officially investing someone with religious authority. Several synonyms are “appoint,” “institute,” “make,” and “establish.” In current usage, the words “ordain” and “ordination” are applied to persons, signifying selection and appointment to God’s service. In the Old Testament Throughout the OT, emphasis falls upon God’s choosing and appointing whom he wills. Priestly functions passed very early from the head of each household to the divinely chosen tribe of Lev...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39841,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Aaron the Priest","title_en":"Aaron the Priest","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron the Priest<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to picture the need of empowering by the Spirit; cf. Ex 28; 40:12-15; Lv 8). Aaron thus became the first high priest, serving nearly 40 years. The character of his office was hereditary; this is attested to by his sons’ wearing his garments when they succeeded to the office of high priest (Ex 29:29-30; Nm 20:25-28). Although all priests were anointed with oil, the anointing of Aaron and his successors was distinct from that of the ordinary priests (Ex 29:7; 40:12-15; Lv 8:12). Because the priesthood was inherited, all subsequent priests had to trace their ancestry back to Aaron (Ezr 7:1-5; Lk 1:5). Also, a sharp distinction was always drawn between the family of Aaron and the rest of the Levites (cf. Nm 3:5). Thus, the high priest was designated as the anointed priest in a special sense (Lv 4:3-4; 6:20-22; 21:10).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because of Aaron’s priestly role, the NT looks upon him as prefiguring the Messiah of Israel. Jesus Christ was appointed High Priest (Heb 3:1-2) in the same way God chose Aaron (Heb 5:1-5), but he was described as a greater high priest than Aaron (Heb 7:11-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron the Priest<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to picture the need of empowering by the Spirit; cf. Ex 28; 40:12-15; Lv 8). Aaron thus became the first high priest, serving nearly 40 years. The character of his office was hereditary; this is attested to by his sons’ wearing his garments when they succeeded to the office of high priest (Ex 29:29-30; Nm 20:25-28). Although all priests were anointed with oil, the anointing of Aaron and his successors was distinct from that of the ordinary priests (Ex 29:7; 40:12-15; Lv 8:12). Because the priesthood was inherited, all subsequent priests had to trace their ancestry back to Aaron (Ezr 7:1-5; Lk 1:5). Also, a sharp distinction was always drawn between the family of Aaron and the rest of the Levites (cf. Nm 3:5). Thus, the high priest was designated as the anointed priest in a special sense (Lv 4:3-4; 6:20-22; 21:10).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because of Aaron’s priestly role, the NT looks upon him as prefiguring the Messiah of Israel. Jesus Christ was appointed High Priest (Heb 3:1-2) in the same way God chose Aaron (Heb 5:1-5), but he was described as a greater high priest than Aaron (Heb 7:11-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron the Priest Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to pic...","summary_en":"Aaron the Priest Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to pic...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44142,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","summary_en":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71768,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","summary_en":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99394,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","summary_en":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127020,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1-36<\/strong> In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, <em>just as the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> had commanded him<\/em> (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","summary_en":"8:1-36 In Exod 28–29, the Lord gave Moses specific instructions for clothing and for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. In Exod 39:1-31; 40:12-16; and Lev 8, the commands were carried out. Moses didn’t just pass along the instructions verbally; he enacted the rituals to provide an example for the priests down to the last detail, just as the Lord had commanded him (8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29). Because the penalty for disobedience was death, God made sure the priests knew exactly what to do.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":10349,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eleazar","title_en":"Eleazar","content_ro":"<h3>ELEAZAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4).<\/li>\n<p>Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:3-4). Eleazar was installed as high priest by Moses when Aaron died on Mt Hor (Nm 20:25-28; Dt 10:6). He was then considered Moses’ assistant (Nm 26:1-3, 63; 27:2, 21). Joshua was commissioned by Moses in the presence of Eleazar (27:18-23). In the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Eleazar served together as leaders. It was Eleazar’s function as Joshua’s counselor to inquire of the Lord (v 21). He also had his share in the census taking at Shittim. He took part in the partitioning of Canaan, the east bank (34:17), and the west bank (Jos 14:1; 17:4; 19:51; 21:1).<\/p>\n<p>When Eleazar died, he was highly regarded and memorialized in the land of Ephraim (Jos 24:33); his son Phinehas followed him as high priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the oversight of the priests, 16 divisions were assigned to Eleazar’s descendants and eight to Ithamar’s (1 Chr 24). The ancestry of the prominent priests Zadok and Ezra is traced to Eleazar (1 Chr 6:3-15, 50-53; 24:3; Ezr 7:1-5). In King Solomon’s time the priests of Zadok replaced Abiathar, a descendant of Ithamar (1 Kgs 2:26-27, 35). The descendants of Eleazar would be the only ones permitted to minister in Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 44:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron.<\/p>\n<li>2. Abinadab’s son, charged with caring for the ark by the people of Kiriath-jearim, when it was brought from Beth-shemesh and placed in the “house of Abinadab on the hill” (1 Sm 7:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Dodo’s son, one of the three mighty men whose exploits against the Philistines gained him great fame (2 Sm 23:9; 1 Chr 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite, son of Mahli. Eleazar died without sons, so his daughters were married to their first cousins (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest descended from Phinehas. This Eleazar helped inventory the temple treasure on returning from the exile with Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>6. Parosh’s son, listed with others who divorced their foreign wives in the reform under Ezra (Ezr 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>7. Priest in attendance at the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem following the exile (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>8. Person in the lineage of Joseph, husband of Mary (Mt 1:15). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELEAZAR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4).<\/li>\n<p>Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:3-4). Eleazar was installed as high priest by Moses when Aaron died on Mt Hor (Nm 20:25-28; Dt 10:6). He was then considered Moses’ assistant (Nm 26:1-3, 63; 27:2, 21). Joshua was commissioned by Moses in the presence of Eleazar (27:18-23). In the conquest of Canaan, Joshua and Eleazar served together as leaders. It was Eleazar’s function as Joshua’s counselor to inquire of the Lord (v 21). He also had his share in the census taking at Shittim. He took part in the partitioning of Canaan, the east bank (34:17), and the west bank (Jos 14:1; 17:4; 19:51; 21:1).<\/p>\n<p>When Eleazar died, he was highly regarded and memorialized in the land of Ephraim (Jos 24:33); his son Phinehas followed him as high priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the oversight of the priests, 16 divisions were assigned to Eleazar’s descendants and eight to Ithamar’s (1 Chr 24). The ancestry of the prominent priests Zadok and Ezra is traced to Eleazar (1 Chr 6:3-15, 50-53; 24:3; Ezr 7:1-5). In King Solomon’s time the priests of Zadok replaced Abiathar, a descendant of Ithamar (1 Kgs 2:26-27, 35). The descendants of Eleazar would be the only ones permitted to minister in Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 44:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aaron.<\/p>\n<li>2. Abinadab’s son, charged with caring for the ark by the people of Kiriath-jearim, when it was brought from Beth-shemesh and placed in the “house of Abinadab on the hill” (1 Sm 7:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Dodo’s son, one of the three mighty men whose exploits against the Philistines gained him great fame (2 Sm 23:9; 1 Chr 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite, son of Mahli. Eleazar died without sons, so his daughters were married to their first cousins (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest descended from Phinehas. This Eleazar helped inventory the temple treasure on returning from the exile with Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>6. Parosh’s son, listed with others who divorced their foreign wives in the reform under Ezra (Ezr 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>7. Priest in attendance at the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem following the exile (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>8. Person in the lineage of Joseph, husband of Mary (Mt 1:15). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELEAZAR 1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4). Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:...","summary_en":"ELEAZAR 1. Third of Aaron’s four sons (Ex 6:23). Eleazar (“God has helped”) was consecrated as a priest with his brothers and Aaron in the Sinai (Ex 28:1; Lv 8:2, 13). When his brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by God as they offered “unholy fire” to the Lord (Lv 10:1-7), Eleazar and Ithamar took leading positions as Aaron’s sons (Nm 3:1-4). Eleazar is described as “chief of the leaders of the Levites” (Nm 3:32). Under his supervision were the sanctuary and its vessels (4:16; 16:37-39; 19:...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44143,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","summary_en":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71769,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","summary_en":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99395,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","summary_en":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127021,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • <em>sacred garments:<\/em> See Exod 28. • The <em>anointing oil<\/em> consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • <em>bull for the sin offering:<\/em> See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the <em>two rams<\/em> was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • <em>basket of bread made without yeast:<\/em> See 6:19-23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","summary_en":"8:2 These items are also mentioned in Exod 29:1-3, 7. • sacred garments: See Exod 28. • The anointing oil consisted of special ingredients to give it a unique scent. These included myrrh, cinnamon, cane, and cassia (dried flowers from the cinnamon tree) mixed into olive oil (see Exod 30:22-33). • bull for the sin offering: See Lev 4:3-12. • The first of the two rams was to be a whole burnt offering (8:18), while the second was a special ordination sacrifice (8:22). • basket of bread made with...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":44144,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","summary_en":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71770,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","summary_en":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99396,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","summary_en":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127022,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> The text repeatedly emphasizes that <em>Moses followed the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s instructions,<\/em> obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","summary_en":"8:4 The text repeatedly emphasizes that Moses followed the Lord’s instructions, obeying the commands given in Exod 29 (see also Lev 8:9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":44145,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","summary_en":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71771,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","summary_en":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99397,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","summary_en":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127023,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> Being <em>washed . . . with water<\/em> was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","summary_en":"8:6 Being washed . . . with water was the first step for cleansing from impurity. The priests had to be ceremonially clean before they could serve the Lord in holiness (Exod 29:4; see Ps 24:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":44146,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","summary_en":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71772,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","summary_en":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99398,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","summary_en":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127024,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7<\/strong> The <em>tunic<\/em> (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered <em>ephod<\/em> (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an ephod also referred to a venerated image (Judg 8:27; 18:17). • The <em>decorative sash<\/em> was embroidered and was made of the same materials as the ephod (see Exod 28:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","summary_en":"8:7 The tunic (see Exod 28:39) was woven of patterned linen cloth. • The same type of material used for the Tabernacle curtains was used for the embroidered ephod (see Exod 28:4, 6-14). This garment’s precise shape and size are unclear, but it seems to have been a long, sleeveless vest, fitted close to the body and tied about the waist. It was joined at the shoulders by gold settings; each setting bore an onyx stone engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel (Exod 28:9). Later, an...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":38119,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"War*, Holy","title_en":"War*, Holy","content_ro":"<h3>WAR*, Holy<\/h3>\n<p>Warfare as described in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in chapter 20. Not merely a human enterprise fought by kings with trained soldiers and military equipment, it is God’s war in which he himself is involved together with his covenant people who are selected to fight in his name. The size of the army is not important; indeed, sometimes the numbers were pared down to dramatize the fact that the victory was gained, not by military superiority, but by the action of God against his enemies. When Israel lived in obedience to God as his covenant people and went into battle under his direction, war was within the will of God, commanded by him, and accomplished through trust in him. God was known as “a man of war,” and it is declared that “the battle is the Lord’s” (1 Sm 17:47; cf. 18:17; 25:28). With this faith on the part of the Jews, it is easy to see how a concept of holy war developed, especially when they had the conviction that their enemies were God’s enemies and that they were the people through whom God would carry out his saving purposes for the world.<\/p>\n<p>Moses believed that God declared war and sent his people into battle (Ex 17:16; Nm 31:3). On several occasions, at crucial points in warfare, the “terror of the Lord” fell upon the enemy, enabling the numerically inferior army of Israel to gain an easy victory over vastly superior forces (Jos 10:10-14; Jgs 4:12-16; 2 Sm 5:24-25). In a time of acute military crisis, Elisha was enabled to see the heavenly army of Yahweh drawn up on the hills around Samaria, ready to defeat the fierce, invading armies of Syria. In response to Elisha’s prayer, the Syrian soldiers were struck with blindness and rendered helpless against the Israelites (2 Kgs 6:15-23). Various means were used to determine the will of God and to assure his active participation in war. In addition to the word of the prophet (1 Kgs 22:5-23), Urim and Thummim (Ex 28:30; Lv 8:8), the ephod (1 Sm 30:7), and the ark of the covenant were employed for this purpose. The leaders of God’s troops constantly sought his direction for military strategy during the progress of battle, for no step was to be taken without divine approval and guidance (2 Sm 5:19-23).<\/p>\n<p>Since God gave Palestine to his own people, the Jews, the land was indeed the Promised Land; it belonged by divine covenant to Israel and was in that sense “the Holy Land.” Any defense of that land against foreign invasion was a holy war. The invading enemy was trespassing upon sacred territory that belonged to God’s people by immutable decree and thus incurred the divine wrath. From this perspective the complete destruction of Israel’s enemies was necessary, particularly when the enemy was pagan and morally corrupt. A characteristic Hebrew word used for this concept, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">herem<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meant “devoted” and came to mean “devoted to destruction” as something hostile to the rule of God (Jos 6:17-18). The divine plan must not be thwarted, obstructed, or aborted by any debasing idolatry or corrupting immorality (Dt 7). Enemy cities within the boundaries of the land promised to the Jews were to be utterly destroyed—a practice known as “the ban.” Only silver, gold, and vessels of bronze and iron were to be spared. They were to be placed in the treasury of the Lord as sacred to him (Jos 6:17-21; 1 Sm 15:3).<\/p>\n<p>There was a distinctly teleological aspect to the concept of holy war. It looked beyond the triumphs of God in specific battles to the conclusion of all hostilities and to a final time of peace that will vindicate the righteousness and sovereignty of God’s saving purposes and display his concern and goal for his own people. The final consummation will be preceded by a massive holy war, after which the weapons of warfare will be transformed into implements of peace (Is 2:4; Mi 4:3) under the reign of the Messiah, the Prince of Peace (Is 9:6), who will subdue all God’s enemies in a triumphant Day of the Lord (Ps 110; Dn 7; Zec 14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAR*, Holy<\/h3>\n<p>Warfare as described in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in chapter 20. Not merely a human enterprise fought by kings with trained soldiers and military equipment, it is God’s war in which he himself is involved together with his covenant people who are selected to fight in his name. The size of the army is not important; indeed, sometimes the numbers were pared down to dramatize the fact that the victory was gained, not by military superiority, but by the action of God against his enemies. When Israel lived in obedience to God as his covenant people and went into battle under his direction, war was within the will of God, commanded by him, and accomplished through trust in him. God was known as “a man of war,” and it is declared that “the battle is the Lord’s” (1 Sm 17:47; cf. 18:17; 25:28). With this faith on the part of the Jews, it is easy to see how a concept of holy war developed, especially when they had the conviction that their enemies were God’s enemies and that they were the people through whom God would carry out his saving purposes for the world.<\/p>\n<p>Moses believed that God declared war and sent his people into battle (Ex 17:16; Nm 31:3). On several occasions, at crucial points in warfare, the “terror of the Lord” fell upon the enemy, enabling the numerically inferior army of Israel to gain an easy victory over vastly superior forces (Jos 10:10-14; Jgs 4:12-16; 2 Sm 5:24-25). In a time of acute military crisis, Elisha was enabled to see the heavenly army of Yahweh drawn up on the hills around Samaria, ready to defeat the fierce, invading armies of Syria. In response to Elisha’s prayer, the Syrian soldiers were struck with blindness and rendered helpless against the Israelites (2 Kgs 6:15-23). Various means were used to determine the will of God and to assure his active participation in war. In addition to the word of the prophet (1 Kgs 22:5-23), Urim and Thummim (Ex 28:30; Lv 8:8), the ephod (1 Sm 30:7), and the ark of the covenant were employed for this purpose. The leaders of God’s troops constantly sought his direction for military strategy during the progress of battle, for no step was to be taken without divine approval and guidance (2 Sm 5:19-23).<\/p>\n<p>Since God gave Palestine to his own people, the Jews, the land was indeed the Promised Land; it belonged by divine covenant to Israel and was in that sense “the Holy Land.” Any defense of that land against foreign invasion was a holy war. The invading enemy was trespassing upon sacred territory that belonged to God’s people by immutable decree and thus incurred the divine wrath. From this perspective the complete destruction of Israel’s enemies was necessary, particularly when the enemy was pagan and morally corrupt. A characteristic Hebrew word used for this concept, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">herem<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally meant “devoted” and came to mean “devoted to destruction” as something hostile to the rule of God (Jos 6:17-18). The divine plan must not be thwarted, obstructed, or aborted by any debasing idolatry or corrupting immorality (Dt 7). Enemy cities within the boundaries of the land promised to the Jews were to be utterly destroyed—a practice known as “the ban.” Only silver, gold, and vessels of bronze and iron were to be spared. They were to be placed in the treasury of the Lord as sacred to him (Jos 6:17-21; 1 Sm 15:3).<\/p>\n<p>There was a distinctly teleological aspect to the concept of holy war. It looked beyond the triumphs of God in specific battles to the conclusion of all hostilities and to a final time of peace that will vindicate the righteousness and sovereignty of God’s saving purposes and display his concern and goal for his own people. The final consummation will be preceded by a massive holy war, after which the weapons of warfare will be transformed into implements of peace (Is 2:4; Mi 4:3) under the reign of the Messiah, the Prince of Peace (Is 9:6), who will subdue all God’s enemies in a triumphant Day of the Lord (Ps 110; Dn 7; Zec 14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAR*, Holy Warfare as described in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in chapter 20. Not merely a human enterprise fought by kings with trained soldiers and military equipment, it is God’s war in which he himself is involved together with his covenant people who are selected to fight in his name. The size of the army is not important; indeed, sometimes the numbers were pared down to dramatize the fact that the victory was gained, not by military superiority, but by the action of God against ...","summary_en":"WAR*, Holy Warfare as described in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in chapter 20. Not merely a human enterprise fought by kings with trained soldiers and military equipment, it is God’s war in which he himself is involved together with his covenant people who are selected to fight in his name. The size of the army is not important; indeed, sometimes the numbers were pared down to dramatize the fact that the victory was gained, not by military superiority, but by the action of God against ...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:8","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","summary_en":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71773,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:8","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","summary_en":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99399,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:8","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","summary_en":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127025,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:8","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:8<\/strong> The <em>chestpiece<\/em> (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The <em>Urim and the Thummim<\/em> were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were cast as lots. They apparently could give a positive, neutral, or negative answer to questions that could not otherwise be resolved (Exod 28:30; Num 27:21; 1 Sam 28:6). Their mention in Old Testament prophetic literature written centuries later (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65) demonstrates how important these items were to the office of priest.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","summary_en":"8:8 The chestpiece (see Exod 28:15-30) was made of embroidered linen folded double. It bore twelve stones, each engraved with the name of a tribe of Israel. It was suspended over the heart by a gold chain from the gold shoulder-pieces of the ephod. • The Urim and the Thummim were placed in the pocket of the chestpiece (Exod 28:30; 1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8); the precise function of these items is uncertain. They are generally thought of as two stones, perhaps each different in color, that were ca...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":44148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","summary_en":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71774,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","summary_en":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99400,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","summary_en":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127026,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9<\/strong> The <em>turban<\/em> worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The <em>gold medallion<\/em> was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “<span>Holy to the Lord<\/span>” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role, the high priest modeled the standard for all priests.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","summary_en":"8:9 The turban worn by the high priest was made of linen and was distinct from the headdresses of the common priests (Exod 28:40). The gold medallion was suspended from the turban and bore an inscription that read, “Holy to the Lord” (Exod 28:36). With the names of the tribes on his shoulders and over his heart and the dedication to the Lord on his forehead, the high priest was clearly marked as the people’s representative to God and God’s representative to the people. In this mediating role,...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":7480,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Consecration*","title_en":"Consecration*","content_ro":"<h3>CONSECRATION*<\/h3>\n<p>Separation of persons, utensils, buildings, or places from everyday secular uses for exclusive dedication to holy or sacred use. In the Bible consecration was demonstrated by an appropriate rite or vow. Hebrew expressions imply “separation” (Ex 13:2; Lv 8:10-12; Dt 15:19), “dedication” (Lv 21:12; Nm 6:9), or “ordination” (lit. “filling the hand,” Ex 28:41; 1 Kgs 13:33). NT references are fewer, but they frequently connote the idea of holiness (Jn 10:36; 1 Cor 7:14; 1 Tm 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>In church usage, especially among hierarchical denominations, the term describes solemn rites that establish a bishop. It is also used to describe dedication of shrines, reliquaries, cathedrals, elements of the Mass, or buildings set aside for ecclesiastical functions.<\/p>\n<p>Protestant teaching stresses the priesthood of every believer. Thus all Christians are “saints” (from the same root word as “consecration”), that is, devoted to God for life. In Roman Catholic doctrine the church consecrates (canonizes) great Christians as saints after they have died.<\/p>\n<p>Consecration is significant in relation both to God and to the world. The apostle Paul spells out the term’s meaning in Romans 12:1-2, stressing that consecration involves a living sacrifice to God. Its importance in relation to people and things is a basic theme of the apostle Peter’s first letter. In everyday life each Christian is meant to live out a “holy” and “royal” priesthood for God’s glory (1 Pt 2:9). Christians consider the consecration of one’s own personality by the work of the Holy Spirit to be an important mark of spiritual maturity.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONSECRATION*<\/h3>\n<p>Separation of persons, utensils, buildings, or places from everyday secular uses for exclusive dedication to holy or sacred use. In the Bible consecration was demonstrated by an appropriate rite or vow. Hebrew expressions imply “separation” (Ex 13:2; Lv 8:10-12; Dt 15:19), “dedication” (Lv 21:12; Nm 6:9), or “ordination” (lit. “filling the hand,” Ex 28:41; 1 Kgs 13:33). NT references are fewer, but they frequently connote the idea of holiness (Jn 10:36; 1 Cor 7:14; 1 Tm 4:5).<\/p>\n<p>In church usage, especially among hierarchical denominations, the term describes solemn rites that establish a bishop. It is also used to describe dedication of shrines, reliquaries, cathedrals, elements of the Mass, or buildings set aside for ecclesiastical functions.<\/p>\n<p>Protestant teaching stresses the priesthood of every believer. Thus all Christians are “saints” (from the same root word as “consecration”), that is, devoted to God for life. In Roman Catholic doctrine the church consecrates (canonizes) great Christians as saints after they have died.<\/p>\n<p>Consecration is significant in relation both to God and to the world. The apostle Paul spells out the term’s meaning in Romans 12:1-2, stressing that consecration involves a living sacrifice to God. Its importance in relation to people and things is a basic theme of the apostle Peter’s first letter. In everyday life each Christian is meant to live out a “holy” and “royal” priesthood for God’s glory (1 Pt 2:9). Christians consider the consecration of one’s own personality by the work of the Holy Spirit to be an important mark of spiritual maturity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONSECRATION* Separation of persons, utensils, buildings, or places from everyday secular uses for exclusive dedication to holy or sacred use. In the Bible consecration was demonstrated by an appropriate rite or vow. Hebrew expressions imply “separation” (Ex 13:2; Lv 8:10-12; Dt 15:19), “dedication” (Lv 21:12; Nm 6:9), or “ordination” (lit. “filling the hand,” Ex 28:41; 1 Kgs 13:33). NT references are fewer, but they frequently connote the idea of holiness (Jn 10:36; 1 Cor 7:14; 1 Tm 4:5). In...","summary_en":"CONSECRATION* Separation of persons, utensils, buildings, or places from everyday secular uses for exclusive dedication to holy or sacred use. In the Bible consecration was demonstrated by an appropriate rite or vow. Hebrew expressions imply “separation” (Ex 13:2; Lv 8:10-12; Dt 15:19), “dedication” (Lv 21:12; Nm 6:9), or “ordination” (lit. “filling the hand,” Ex 28:41; 1 Kgs 13:33). NT references are fewer, but they frequently connote the idea of holiness (Jn 10:36; 1 Cor 7:14; 1 Tm 4:5). In...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","summary_en":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71775,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","summary_en":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99401,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","summary_en":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127027,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>making them holy:<\/em> God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","summary_en":"8:10 making them holy: God is the Holy One (Pss 22:3; 78:41). In the strictest sense, only God can make a person or thing holy (Lev 20:8; 21:15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; Exod 31:13; see Heb 2:11); the actions of Moses simply recognized and declared what God had done (also in Lev 8:11, 12, 15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":39845,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Aaron the Priest","title_en":"Aaron the Priest","content_ro":"<h3>Aaron the Priest<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to picture the need of empowering by the Spirit; cf. Ex 28; 40:12-15; Lv 8). Aaron thus became the first high priest, serving nearly 40 years. The character of his office was hereditary; this is attested to by his sons’ wearing his garments when they succeeded to the office of high priest (Ex 29:29-30; Nm 20:25-28). Although all priests were anointed with oil, the anointing of Aaron and his successors was distinct from that of the ordinary priests (Ex 29:7; 40:12-15; Lv 8:12). Because the priesthood was inherited, all subsequent priests had to trace their ancestry back to Aaron (Ezr 7:1-5; Lk 1:5). Also, a sharp distinction was always drawn between the family of Aaron and the rest of the Levites (cf. Nm 3:5). Thus, the high priest was designated as the anointed priest in a special sense (Lv 4:3-4; 6:20-22; 21:10).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because of Aaron’s priestly role, the NT looks upon him as prefiguring the Messiah of Israel. Jesus Christ was appointed High Priest (Heb 3:1-2) in the same way God chose Aaron (Heb 5:1-5), but he was described as a greater high priest than Aaron (Heb 7:11-28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Aaron the Priest<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to picture the need of empowering by the Spirit; cf. Ex 28; 40:12-15; Lv 8). Aaron thus became the first high priest, serving nearly 40 years. The character of his office was hereditary; this is attested to by his sons’ wearing his garments when they succeeded to the office of high priest (Ex 29:29-30; Nm 20:25-28). Although all priests were anointed with oil, the anointing of Aaron and his successors was distinct from that of the ordinary priests (Ex 29:7; 40:12-15; Lv 8:12). Because the priesthood was inherited, all subsequent priests had to trace their ancestry back to Aaron (Ezr 7:1-5; Lk 1:5). Also, a sharp distinction was always drawn between the family of Aaron and the rest of the Levites (cf. Nm 3:5). Thus, the high priest was designated as the anointed priest in a special sense (Lv 4:3-4; 6:20-22; 21:10).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because of Aaron’s priestly role, the NT looks upon him as prefiguring the Messiah of Israel. Jesus Christ was appointed High Priest (Heb 3:1-2) in the same way God chose Aaron (Heb 5:1-5), but he was described as a greater high priest than Aaron (Heb 7:11-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Aaron the Priest Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to pic...","summary_en":"Aaron the Priest Because it marked the beginning of the priesthood in Israel, the consecration of Aaron to his office was both instructive and solemn. Nothing was left to human ingenuity; all was precisely commanded of God. There were three ceremonies: washing, clothing, and anointing. When the tabernacle was finished, Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priesthood by washing (to signify purification), clothing with official garments (for beauty and glory), and anointing with oil (to pic...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":44150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","summary_en":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71776,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","summary_en":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99402,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","summary_en":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127028,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:13<\/strong> For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","summary_en":"8:13 For the attire of the common priests, see Exod 28:40-41.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":28217,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Offerings and Sacrifices","title_en":"Offerings and Sacrifices","content_ro":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","summary_en":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:14","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","summary_en":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71777,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:14","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","summary_en":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99403,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:14","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","summary_en":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127029,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:14","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:14<\/strong> <em>sin offering<\/em> (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing <em>their hands on the bull’s head<\/em> (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","summary_en":"8:14 sin offering (see 4:3-12): Two atoning offerings were made—the sin offering (8:14-17) and the whole burnt offering (8:18-21). • By placing their hands on the bull’s head (see 1:4), Aaron and his sons were identifying themselves with the sacrifice (also in 8:18, 22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":44152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","summary_en":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","summary_en":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99404,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","summary_en":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127030,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so <em>Moses,<\/em> acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","summary_en":"8:15 Normally, the high priest performed these priestly duties. However, it would not be proper for the priests to ordain themselves, so Moses, acting as God’s representative, instituted the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":22771,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":44153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","summary_en":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","summary_en":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99405,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","summary_en":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127031,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>ram for the burnt offering:<\/em> See study note on 1:10-13.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","summary_en":"8:18 ram for the burnt offering: See study note on 1:10-13.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":3943,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bathing Bathe","title_en":"Bathing Bathe","content_ro":"<h3>BATHE, BATHING<\/h3>\n<p>To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparation for burial (Acts 9:37), and sheep for their shearing (Sg 6:6). Frequent bathing of the whole body was probably reserved for the rich (Ex 2:5), but the prevalence of dust made frequent washing of the face, hands, and feet necessary (Gn 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jgs 19:21; Sg 5:3). Good grooming for the privileged demanded washing of one’s body before anointing with oil (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20; Ez 23:41). A good host provided water for a guest’s feet (Gn 18:4; Jgs 19:21; Lk 7:44; Jn 13:4-5). To wash someone’s feet was the task of a servant. For anyone else to do so was a sign of humility (1 Sm 25:41; Lk 7:44-47; Jn 13:3-16; 1 Tm 5:10).<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to washing or bathing deal with ritual cleansing. Priests and Levites were required to wash their clothes and faces, and sometimes bodies, before approaching the altar and on ceremonial occasions (Ex 29:4; 30:19-21; 40:7, 12, 30-32; Nm 8:21). Before a slain animal was sacrificed, its legs and intestines were washed (Lv 1:9, 13; 8:21; 9:14). Anyone who was once unclean (e.g., a leper who was healed or someone who had experienced a genital discharge) had to wash his or her clothes and bathe to be ritually pure (Lv 14:8-10; 15:5-11, 21-27). Any garment that became polluted had to be ceremonially cleansed (Lv 6:27; 13:54).<\/p>\n<p>“Washing” is also used figuratively for a cleansing from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 4:4; Jer 2:22; 4:14; 1 Cor 6:11; Heb 10:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BATHE, BATHING<\/h3>\n<p>To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparation for burial (Acts 9:37), and sheep for their shearing (Sg 6:6). Frequent bathing of the whole body was probably reserved for the rich (Ex 2:5), but the prevalence of dust made frequent washing of the face, hands, and feet necessary (Gn 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jgs 19:21; Sg 5:3). Good grooming for the privileged demanded washing of one’s body before anointing with oil (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20; Ez 23:41). A good host provided water for a guest’s feet (Gn 18:4; Jgs 19:21; Lk 7:44; Jn 13:4-5). To wash someone’s feet was the task of a servant. For anyone else to do so was a sign of humility (1 Sm 25:41; Lk 7:44-47; Jn 13:3-16; 1 Tm 5:10).<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to washing or bathing deal with ritual cleansing. Priests and Levites were required to wash their clothes and faces, and sometimes bodies, before approaching the altar and on ceremonial occasions (Ex 29:4; 30:19-21; 40:7, 12, 30-32; Nm 8:21). Before a slain animal was sacrificed, its legs and intestines were washed (Lv 1:9, 13; 8:21; 9:14). Anyone who was once unclean (e.g., a leper who was healed or someone who had experienced a genital discharge) had to wash his or her clothes and bathe to be ritually pure (Lv 14:8-10; 15:5-11, 21-27). Any garment that became polluted had to be ceremonially cleansed (Lv 6:27; 13:54).<\/p>\n<p>“Washing” is also used figuratively for a cleansing from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 4:4; Jer 2:22; 4:14; 1 Cor 6:11; Heb 10:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BATHE, BATHING To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12). Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparat...","summary_en":"BATHE, BATHING To cleanse as with water; to wash oneself. In the Bible the terms “bathing” and “washing” translate, often interchangeably, a number of different words. One OT passage uses one Hebrew word for cleaning clothes, another for washing other objects, including the body (Lv 15:8-12). Israel’s dry climate and scarcity of water discouraged bathing except where a stream or pool was available (2 Kgs 5:10; Jn 9:7). Yet people still washed babies at birth (Ez 16:4), dead bodies in preparat...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":28219,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Offerings and Sacrifices","title_en":"Offerings and Sacrifices","content_ro":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","summary_en":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":44154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:22","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","summary_en":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:22","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","summary_en":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99406,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:22","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","summary_en":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127032,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:22","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:22<\/strong> <em>ram of ordination:<\/em> See Exod 29:19-34.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","summary_en":"8:22 ram of ordination: See Exod 29:19-34.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":44155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:23","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","summary_en":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:23","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","summary_en":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99407,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:23","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","summary_en":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127033,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:23","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:23<\/strong> Aaron’s <em>[ear]lobe, thumb,<\/em> and <em>big toe<\/em> represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","summary_en":"8:23 Aaron’s [ear]lobe, thumb, and big toe represented his total person. This act emphasized the role of the priestly office, with the blood stressing the ties to the sacrificial system. The priest’s basic function was mediation between God and his people. To do this effectively, he needed ears that could hear the words of God and the needs of his people, hands ready to do God’s bidding, and feet ready to take him where he was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":28382,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oil","title_en":"Oil","content_ro":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","summary_en":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":44156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","summary_en":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","summary_en":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99408,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","summary_en":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127034,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:29<\/strong> Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s <em>portion<\/em> of the offering (see 8:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","summary_en":"8:29 Moses functioned as a priest in the ordination ceremony and so received the priest’s portion of the offering (see 8:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":44157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:30","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","summary_en":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:30","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","summary_en":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99409,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:30","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","summary_en":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127035,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:30","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:30<\/strong> <em>anointing oil:<\/em> See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","summary_en":"8:30 anointing oil: See study note on 8:2; see also Ps 133:2.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":44158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:31","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","summary_en":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:31","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","summary_en":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99410,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:31","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","summary_en":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127036,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:31","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:31<\/strong> The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to <em>boil . . . and eat<\/em> the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","summary_en":"8:31 The ordination offering was a variation of the peace offering (Exod 29:28). It was a meal (Lev 7:11-18, 28-34) shared between God (the parts burned on the altar) and the priests. The command to boil . . . and eat the ordination offering first appears in Exod 29:32.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":44159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:34","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","summary_en":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:34","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","summary_en":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99411,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:34","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","summary_en":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127037,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:34","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:34<\/strong> <em>commanded by the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","summary_en":"8:34 commanded by the Lord: The details of the sacrifice rituals were symbolic and important in their own right. Yet most important, the priests were to obey God’s commands. Complete obedience to God is a major theme in both the Old Testament and the New Testament: “Obedience is better than sacrifice” (1 Sam 15:22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":44160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:35","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","summary_en":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:35","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","summary_en":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99412,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:35","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","summary_en":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127038,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Leviticul 8:35","title_en":"Study Note: Leviticul 8:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:35<\/strong> <em>seven days:<\/em> This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for <em>seven days<\/em> before venturing out into everyday life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","summary_en":"8:35 seven days: This command emphasized God’s absolute holiness and mandated strict compliance with his commands. The priests, now anointed as God’s holy servants, were to remain in the Tabernacle court for seven days before venturing out into everyday life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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