1
În vremea aceea, s-a cetit în faţa poporului în cartea lui Moise, şi s-a găsit scris că Amonitul şi Moabitul nu trebuiau să intre niciodată în adunarea lui Dumnezeu,
2
pentrucă nu veniseră înaintea copiilor lui Israel cu pâne şi apă, şi pentrucă tocmiseră împotriva lor cu preţ de argint pe Balaam ca să-i blesteme. Dar Dumnezeul nostru a prefăcut blestemul în binecuvântare.
3
Când au auzit Legea, au deosebit din Israel pe toţi străinii.
4
Înainte de aceasta, preotul Eliaşib, care era pus peste cămările Casei Dumnezeului nostru, şi rudă cu Tobia,
5
pregătise pentru el o cămară mare, unde puneau mai înainte darurile de mâncare, tămâia, uneltele, zeciuiala din grâu, din must, şi din untdelemn, părţile rânduite pentru Leviţi, cântăreţi şi uşieri, şi darurile ridicate pentru preoţi.
6
Eu nu eram la Ierusalim când s-au petrecut toate acestea, căci mă întorsesem la împărat în al treizeci şi doilea an al lui Artaxerxe, împăratul Babilonului. La sfârşitul anului am căpătat de la împărat învoire
7
să mă întorc la Ierusalim, şi am văzut răul pe care-l făcuse Eliaşib, pregătind o cămară pentru Tobia, în curţile Casei lui Dumnezeu.
8
Mi-a părut foarte rău, şi am aruncat afară din cămară toate lucrurile lui Tobia.
9
Apoi am poruncit să se curăţească odăile, şi am pus iarăş în ele uneltele Casei lui Dumnezeu, darurile de mâncare şi tămâia.
10
Am auzit deasemenea că părţile Leviţilor nu li se dăduseră, şi că Leviţii şi cântăreţii, însărcinaţi cu slujba, fugiseră fiecare în ţinutul lui.
11
Am mustrat pe dregători, şi am zis: ,,Pentruce a fost părăsită Casa lui Dumnezeu?`` Şi am strâns pe Leviţi şi pe cântăreţi, şi i-am pus iarăş în slujba lor.
12
Atunci tot Iuda a adus în cămări zeciuiala din grâu, din must şi din untdelemn.
13
Am dat cămările în grija preotului Şelemia, cărturarului Ţadoc, şi lui Pedaia, unul din Leviţi, şi le-am adaos şi pe Hanan, fiul lui Zacur, fiul lui Matania, căci le mergea numele că sânt credinicoşi. Ei au fost însărcinaţi să facă împărţirile cuvenite fraţilor lor.
14
Adu-Ţi aminte de mine, Dumnezeule, pentru aceste lucruri, şi nu uita faptele mele evlavioase făcute pentru Casa Dumnezeului meu şi pentru lucrurile cari trebuiesc păzite în ea!
15
Pe vremea aceasta am văzut în Iuda nişte oameni călcând la teasc în ziua Sabatului, aducând snopi, încărcând măgarii cu vin, struguri şi smochine, şi cu tot felul de lucruri, şi aducându-le la Ierusalim în ziua Sabatului. Şi i-am mustrat chiar în ziua când îşi vindeau mărfurile.
16
Mai erau şi nişte Tirieni, aşezaţi în Ierusalim, cari aduceau peşte şi tot felul de mărfuri, şi le vindeau fiilor lui Iuda în ziua Sabatului şi în Ierusalim.
17
Am mustrat pe mai marii lui Iuda, şi le-am zis: ,,Ce însemnează această faptă rea pe care o faceţi, pângărind ziua Sabatului?
18
Oare n-au lucrat aşa părinţii voştri, şi nu din pricina aceasta a trimes Dumnezeul nostru toate aceste nenorociri peste noi şi peste cetatea aceasta? Şi voi aduceţi din nou mânia Lui împotriva lui Israel, pângărind Sabatul!``
19
Apoi am poruncit să se închidă porţile Ierusalimului înainte de Sabat, de îndată ce le va ajunge umbra, şi să nu se deschidă decât după Sabat. Şi am pus cîţiva din slujitorii mei la porţi, să oprească intrarea sarcinilor de mărfuri în ziua Sabatului.
20
Şi aşa negustorii şi vânzătorii de tot felul de lucruri au petrecut noaptea odată şi de două ori afară din Ierusalim.
21
I-am mustrat, şi le-am zis: ,,Pentruce staţi noaptea înaintea zidului? Dacă veţi mai face încă odată lucrul acesta, voi pune mâna pe voi.`` Din clipa aceea, n-au mai venit în timpul Sabatului.
22
Am poruncit şi Leviţilor să se curăţească, şi să vină să păzească porţile, ca să sfinţească ziua Sabatului.
23
Tot pe vremea aceea, am văzut pe nişte Iudei, cari îşi luaseră neveste Asdodiene, Amonite şi Moabite.
24
Jumătate din fiii lor vorbeau limba asdodiană, şi nu ştiau să vorbească limba evreiască; nu cunoşteau decât limba cutărui sau cutărui popor.
25
I-am mustrat, şi i-am blestemat; am lovit pe unii din ei, le-am smuls părul, şi i-am pus să jure în Numele lui Dumnezeu, zicând: ,,Să nu vă daţi fetele după fiii lor, şi să nu luaţi fetele lor de neveste nici pentru fiii voştri, nici pentru voi.
26
Oare nu în aceasta a păcătuit Solomon, împăratul lui Israel? Nu era alt împărat ca el, în mulţimea popoarelor; el era iubit de Dumnezeul lui, şi Dumnezeu îl pusese împărat peste tot Israelul. Totuş, femeile străine l-au târât şi pe el în păcat.
27
Şi acum trebuie să auzim despre voi că săvârşiţi o nelegiuire atât de mare şi că păcătuiţi împotriva Dumnezeului nostru, luând neveste străine?``
28
Unul din fiii lui Ioiada, fiul marelui preot Eliaşib, era ginerele lui Sanbalat, Horonitul. L-am izgonit dela mine.
29
Adu-Ţi aminte de ei, Dumnezeule, căci au spurcat preoţia şi legământul încheiat de preoţi şi Leviţi.
30
I-am curăţit de orice străin, şi am pus rânduială în tot ce trebuiau să păzească preoţii şi Leviţii, fiecare în slujba lui,
31
în ce privea atât darul lemnelor la vremi hotărâte, cât şi cele dintâi roade
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From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41807,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. 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Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). 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They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69433,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). 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Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96314,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97059,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123940,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124685,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1348,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ammonites Ammon","title_en":"Ammonites Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","summary_en":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11403,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24011,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Malachi","title_en":"Book of Malachi","content_ro":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","summary_en":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26163,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27212,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27246,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48261,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","summary_en":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75887,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","summary_en":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103513,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","summary_en":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131139,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:1-3<\/strong> On the <em>same day<\/em> the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that <em>no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God.<\/em> Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","summary_en":"13:1-3 On the same day the Temple workers were appointed (12:44), the text from Deut 23:3-6 was read. It said that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever be permitted to enter the assembly of God. Nehemiah later discovered (Neh 13:4-14) that these teachings were no longer being observed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62262,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89888,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117514,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145140,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":41044,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68670,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96296,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123922,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":10528,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eliashib","title_en":"Eliashib","content_ro":"<h3>ELIASHIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Elioenai’s son and a descendant of Zerubbabel in the royal lineage of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Aaron’s descendant chosen by David to head the 11th of the 24 courses of priests taking turns in the sanctuary services (1 Chr 24:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. High priest in the second succession from Jeshua (Neh 12:10). Eliashib assigned a chamber of the temple to Tobiah the Ammonite, a relative by marriage. When Nehemiah returned from exile, he had Tobiah removed from his temple lodging (Ezr 10:6; Neh 3:1, 20; 13:4, 7-8, 28).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite and temple singer. He pledged to put away his foreign wife at Ezra’s command (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>5, 6. Two men, a son of Zattu and a son of Bani, similarly persuaded by Ezra to put away their foreign wives (Ezr 10:27, 36).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELIASHIB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Elioenai’s son and a descendant of Zerubbabel in the royal lineage of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Aaron’s descendant chosen by David to head the 11th of the 24 courses of priests taking turns in the sanctuary services (1 Chr 24:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. High priest in the second succession from Jeshua (Neh 12:10). Eliashib assigned a chamber of the temple to Tobiah the Ammonite, a relative by marriage. When Nehemiah returned from exile, he had Tobiah removed from his temple lodging (Ezr 10:6; Neh 3:1, 20; 13:4, 7-8, 28).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite and temple singer. He pledged to put away his foreign wife at Ezra’s command (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>5, 6. Two men, a son of Zattu and a son of Bani, similarly persuaded by Ezra to put away their foreign wives (Ezr 10:27, 36).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELIASHIB 1. Elioenai’s son and a descendant of Zerubbabel in the royal lineage of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Aaron’s descendant chosen by David to head the 11th of the 24 courses of priests taking turns in the sanctuary services (1 Chr 24:12). 3. High priest in the second succession from Jeshua (Neh 12:10). Eliashib assigned a chamber of the temple to Tobiah the Ammonite, a relative by marriage. When Nehemiah returned from exile, he had Tobiah removed from his temple lodging (Ezr 10:6; Neh 3:1, 2...","summary_en":"ELIASHIB 1. Elioenai’s son and a descendant of Zerubbabel in the royal lineage of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Aaron’s descendant chosen by David to head the 11th of the 24 courses of priests taking turns in the sanctuary services (1 Chr 24:12). 3. High priest in the second succession from Jeshua (Neh 12:10). Eliashib assigned a chamber of the temple to Tobiah the Ammonite, a relative by marriage. When Nehemiah returned from exile, he had Tobiah removed from his temple lodging (Ezr 10:6; Neh 3:1, 2...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27247,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37032,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temple","title_en":"Temple","content_ro":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","summary_en":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39620,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Books of Postexilic Times","title_en":"Books of Postexilic Times","content_ro":"<h3>Books of Postexilic Times<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Dates<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 1:1–4:6, 24<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>538–536 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 5:1–6:22; Hg; Zec<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>520–515 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 7–10<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>458 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 4:7-23<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>c. 447 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Neh 1:1–13:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>445–433 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Neh 13:4-31<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>c. 431 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>Books of Postexilic Times<\/h3>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>Reference<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Dates<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 1:1–4:6, 24<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>538–536 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 5:1–6:22; Hg; Zec<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>520–515 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 7–10<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>458 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Ezr 4:7-23<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>c. 447 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Neh 1:1–13:3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>445–433 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Neh 13:4-31<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>c. 431 <span>BC<\/span><\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Books of Postexilic Times Reference Dates Ezr 1:1–4:6, 24 538–536 BC Ezr 5:1–6:22; Hg; Zec 520–515 BC Ezr 7–10 458 BC Ezr 4:7-23 c. 447 BC Neh 1:1–13:3 445–433 BC Neh 13:4-31 c. 431 BC","summary_en":"Books of Postexilic Times Reference Dates Ezr 1:1–4:6, 24 538–536 BC Ezr 5:1–6:22; Hg; Zec 520–515 BC Ezr 7–10 458 BC Ezr 4:7-23 c. 447 BC Neh 1:1–13:3 445–433 BC Neh 13:4-31 c. 431 BC","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48262,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","summary_en":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48263,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","summary_en":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75888,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","summary_en":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75889,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","summary_en":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103514,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","summary_en":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103515,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","summary_en":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131140,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-14<\/strong> <em>Eliashib the priest<\/em> (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","summary_en":"13:4-14 Eliashib the priest (see 12:10, 22; 13:28) had stopped following the practice of excluding the Ammonites and Moabites (13:1), and the people quit giving their tithes to the Levites (13:10-12). Now, Nehemiah corrected these problems.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131141,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:4-5<\/strong> <em>Eliashib<\/em>’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and <em>Tobiah<\/em>. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","summary_en":"13:4-5 Eliashib’s family intermarried with the families of Sanballat (13:28) and Tobiah. Both of these men were enemies of the Jewish community (2:10, 19; 4:1). Tobiah’s use of the storeroom meant there was less room to store tithes and gifts for the Temple workers (cp. 10:39; 13:10-12; 2 Chr 31:11) and less space for supplies needed to conduct regular worship at the Temple (Lev 2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62205,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89831,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117457,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145083,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":12811,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Frankincense","title_en":"Frankincense","content_ro":"<h3>FRANKINCENSE<\/h3>\n<p>Fragrant gum resin that can be ground into powder and burned to produce a balsamlike odor. It was often associated with myrrh (Sg 3:6; 4:6; Mt 2:11). Frankincense is obtained from balsam trees of the genus <em>Boswellia,<\/em> specifically the species <em>B. carterii, B. papyrifera,<\/em> and <em>B. thurifera.<\/em> These trees, which are related to turpentine trees, have star-shaped flowers that are pure white or green, tipped with rose. To obtain the resin, a deep incision is cut into the trunk, yielding an amber-colored gum. Since these trees were native only to Saba (Sheba) in southern Arabia (Is 60:6; Jer 6:20) and Somaliland, the resin was a costly item transported into Palestine by caravan. The so-called frankincense tree growing in Palestine (Ecclus 50:8) was probably <em>Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em> whose resin was used to produce perfume.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense was used alone or with other materials for incense. It was one of the ingredients of the holy incense used for worship in the tabernacle (Ex 30:34). It was placed on the bread of the Presence (Lv 24:7) and mixed with oil on the cereal offerings (Lv 2:1-2, 14-16; 6:15), but it was excluded from the sin offering (5:11). A supply of frankincense was maintained in the Jerusalem temple (Neh 13:5, 9). It was later used in cosmetics and perfume (Sg 3:6). Both the costly value and its use for worship made the presentation of frankincense to the infant Jesus an appropriate gift (Mt 2:11). <em>See<\/em> Plants.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FRANKINCENSE<\/h3>\n<p>Fragrant gum resin that can be ground into powder and burned to produce a balsamlike odor. It was often associated with myrrh (Sg 3:6; 4:6; Mt 2:11). Frankincense is obtained from balsam trees of the genus <em>Boswellia,<\/em> specifically the species <em>B. carterii, B. papyrifera,<\/em> and <em>B. thurifera.<\/em> These trees, which are related to turpentine trees, have star-shaped flowers that are pure white or green, tipped with rose. To obtain the resin, a deep incision is cut into the trunk, yielding an amber-colored gum. Since these trees were native only to Saba (Sheba) in southern Arabia (Is 60:6; Jer 6:20) and Somaliland, the resin was a costly item transported into Palestine by caravan. The so-called frankincense tree growing in Palestine (Ecclus 50:8) was probably <em>Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em> whose resin was used to produce perfume.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense was used alone or with other materials for incense. It was one of the ingredients of the holy incense used for worship in the tabernacle (Ex 30:34). It was placed on the bread of the Presence (Lv 24:7) and mixed with oil on the cereal offerings (Lv 2:1-2, 14-16; 6:15), but it was excluded from the sin offering (5:11). A supply of frankincense was maintained in the Jerusalem temple (Neh 13:5, 9). It was later used in cosmetics and perfume (Sg 3:6). Both the costly value and its use for worship made the presentation of frankincense to the infant Jesus an appropriate gift (Mt 2:11). <em>See<\/em> Plants.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FRANKINCENSE Fragrant gum resin that can be ground into powder and burned to produce a balsamlike odor. It was often associated with myrrh (Sg 3:6; 4:6; Mt 2:11). Frankincense is obtained from balsam trees of the genus Boswellia, specifically the species B. carterii, B. papyrifera, and B. thurifera. These trees, which are related to turpentine trees, have star-shaped flowers that are pure white or green, tipped with rose. To obtain the resin, a deep incision is cut into the trunk, yielding an...","summary_en":"FRANKINCENSE Fragrant gum resin that can be ground into powder and burned to produce a balsamlike odor. It was often associated with myrrh (Sg 3:6; 4:6; Mt 2:11). Frankincense is obtained from balsam trees of the genus Boswellia, specifically the species B. carterii, B. papyrifera, and B. thurifera. These trees, which are related to turpentine trees, have star-shaped flowers that are pure white or green, tipped with rose. To obtain the resin, a deep incision is cut into the trunk, yielding an...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17396,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Incense","title_en":"Incense","content_ro":"<h3>INCENSE<\/h3>\n<p>Fragrant spices and oils or sacrifice that sends up perfumed smoke to God in order to please him.<\/p>\n<p>People of every age have loved fragrant odors. In ancient times, sacrifices included sweet smells to make the deity happy. The aroma was a crucial factor in whether the god would accept the offering. Therefore, aromatic plants and exotic perfumes were precious for both secular and religious purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Spices and precious oils were valued along with silver and gold. The queen of Sheba brought spices to Solomon as a gift (1 Kgs 10:2). Incense was kept in the royal treasury (2 Kgs 20:13). The price of spices and oils was extremely inflated because of the difficult work of extracting the juices, transportation costs to import them from faraway places, and high profits for merchants who sold the perfumes.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, lovers sometimes compared their beloved to “myrrh,” a “mountain of myrrh” and a “hill of frankincense” (Sg 1:13; 4:6). The fragrance of incense set the right mood (1:12). Every spice known to a merchant burned beside the couch of Solomon (3:6). A bridegroom delighted in the perfumes of his beloved. She was his own private garden of incense (4:10-14). Even a prostitute burned incense beside her bed (Ez 23:41). No wonder wise men said that “fragrant oil” makes the heart glad and the “sweetness of friendship” comforts the soul (e.g., Prv 27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofIncense\">Types of Incense<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned most often in the Bible. It was imported from India, Somaliland, and Arabia Felix. Myrrh also came from Arabia Felix. Cinnamon was another important fragrance from Ceylon and China. Galbanum, tragacanth (gum), and laudanum all were grown in the mountains of Asia Minor. Galbanum was the most popular of these three, for it was also found in Turkestan, Persia, Syria, and Crete. Henna, saffron, and balsam came from aromatic plants native to Israel. In postexilic times other plants were introduced to Palestine and cultivated there: the rose, narcissus, and jasmine. Onycha seems to have been produced from the local fauna, and musk (muskin) may have been extracted from a gland of the musk deer.<\/p>\n<p>Incense itself came in many forms. It might be used as granules placed in a bag hung around the neck (Sg 1:13). In the main, however, perfumes were in a liquid form, dissolved in olive oil. A good example of this is the “holy anointing oil” (Ex 30:31). Such oils were used to anoint the priests and kings of Israel. Only priests were allowed to prepare and administer them. The incense contained raw spices beaten into a fine consistency and seasoned with salt to make them holy. Stacte, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense were mixed in equal proportions, all according to the art of the perfumer (Ex 30:34-37). The spices and incense for the sanctuary were donated as gifts (Nm 7:14-86; Jer 17:26; 41:5) and kept in the temple (Neh 13:5, 9). Josephus described the incense of his day as a much more complicated compound. He listed 13 ingredients in the best incense of the Herodian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IncenseOffering\">Incense Offering<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has demonstrated that incense offerings were common throughout the ancient Near East from the earliest times of organized worship. Egyptian paintings and reliefs from the New Kingdom occasionally show a man holding a censer of burning incense. Incense seems to have been used as well in the rituals of Assyria, Babylonia, and Arabia. Canaanite altars found at Megiddo and Tell Beit Mirsim have horned limestone altars (10th century <span>BC<\/span>) that may have been designed to hold a bowl of incense. Hence, it is safe to assume that incense offerings also played some part in the worship of Israel from the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Incense offerings seem to have served a multitude of purposes. They may have been used to drive away evil spirits and thereby sanctify all the utensils of the place of worship (Ex 30:26-29). Undoubtedly, the sweet smell of incense provided an antidote to the putrid odor of the animal sacrifices. Therefore, if God was to receive a sweet savor and thereby be pleased with an offering, incense was necessary to compensate for the smell of the sacrifices. However, spices were never added to the flesh of the animals or birds.<\/p>\n<p>In some instances, incense itself became a sacrifice. As a supplement to other sacrifices, frankincense alone was burned. To alleviate a plague, Aaron performed a ritual of burning incense (Nm 16:46-47). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest carried burning incense and hot coals on a pan (censer) into the Holy of Holies (Lv 16:12-13). The burning incense was thought to protect the life of the high priest, perhaps because the smoke kept him from seeing the full glory of God.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense was added to grain for offerings on the altar of burnt offering (Lv 2:1, 15-16; 6:15). It also accompanied the bread of the Presence (24:7) in two dishes. The bronze serpent destroyed by Hezekiah in his reform had become a profane object to which incense was burned (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Except on the Day of Atonement, the incense was offered on a special altar (Lv 4:7; cf. Ex 30:9), where it burned morning and evening and came to be called “perpetual incense” (Ex 30:7-8). Probably the altar of gold in Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 6:20-22) was the incense altar.<\/p>\n<p>Offering incense was a holy ritual, and persons who offered it with disrespect for procedures were condemned (Lv 10:1-2; Nm 16:6-50). Uzziah, the king of Judah, became a leper because he dared to offer incense (2 Chr 26:16-21). The burning of incense at “high places” is often criticized (e.g., 1 Kgs 22:43), either because the sanctuaries were idolatrous or because their priests did not take proper care as did the priesthood in Jerusalem. Prophets who criticized the offering of incense (Is 1:13; 66:3; Jer 6:20) did so to condemn a formalism that was void of devotion to the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningofIncense\">Meaning of Incense<\/p>\n<p>Since incense was such a precious commodity, incense was a fitting offering to God (Mal 1:11). Incense offerings also provided a tangible sense of God’s holiness in which the people could experience atonement for sin (Nm 16:46-47). The smoke rising to the sky symbolized the prayers of the people (Ps 141:2; Lk 1:10; Rv 5:8; 8:3-4). At the same time, the smoke in the temple symbolized the presence of God as it had been portrayed by the cloud in the wilderness (Ex 19:18; 33:9-10; Nm 11:25). Together with the rising sun, the smoke provided a powerful symbol for the glory of the Lord (Is 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The significance of incense is further enhanced by NT allusions. The Christian’s testimony about Christ is paralleled with the offering of incense (2 Cor 2:14-15). The sweet smell of the gospel is contrasted with the smell of death that leads to doom. Likewise, money from the Philippian Christians came to Paul in the spirit of an incense sacrifice (Phil 4:18), a costly expression of love and devotion. Finally, incense seems to sanctify and accompany the prayers of the saints into the presence of God (Rv 5:8; 8:3-4). None of the NT references call upon the Christian to offer incense, but rather to learn the devotion and dedication to holiness signified by the burning of this precious substance.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plants (Aloe; Balm; Calamus; Cinnamon; Frankincense; Galbanum; Henna; Hyssop; Myrrh; Nard; Storax Tree); Perfume; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INCENSE<\/h3>\n<p>Fragrant spices and oils or sacrifice that sends up perfumed smoke to God in order to please him.<\/p>\n<p>People of every age have loved fragrant odors. In ancient times, sacrifices included sweet smells to make the deity happy. The aroma was a crucial factor in whether the god would accept the offering. Therefore, aromatic plants and exotic perfumes were precious for both secular and religious purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Spices and precious oils were valued along with silver and gold. The queen of Sheba brought spices to Solomon as a gift (1 Kgs 10:2). Incense was kept in the royal treasury (2 Kgs 20:13). The price of spices and oils was extremely inflated because of the difficult work of extracting the juices, transportation costs to import them from faraway places, and high profits for merchants who sold the perfumes.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, lovers sometimes compared their beloved to “myrrh,” a “mountain of myrrh” and a “hill of frankincense” (Sg 1:13; 4:6). The fragrance of incense set the right mood (1:12). Every spice known to a merchant burned beside the couch of Solomon (3:6). A bridegroom delighted in the perfumes of his beloved. She was his own private garden of incense (4:10-14). Even a prostitute burned incense beside her bed (Ez 23:41). No wonder wise men said that “fragrant oil” makes the heart glad and the “sweetness of friendship” comforts the soul (e.g., Prv 27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofIncense\">Types of Incense<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned most often in the Bible. It was imported from India, Somaliland, and Arabia Felix. Myrrh also came from Arabia Felix. Cinnamon was another important fragrance from Ceylon and China. Galbanum, tragacanth (gum), and laudanum all were grown in the mountains of Asia Minor. Galbanum was the most popular of these three, for it was also found in Turkestan, Persia, Syria, and Crete. Henna, saffron, and balsam came from aromatic plants native to Israel. In postexilic times other plants were introduced to Palestine and cultivated there: the rose, narcissus, and jasmine. Onycha seems to have been produced from the local fauna, and musk (muskin) may have been extracted from a gland of the musk deer.<\/p>\n<p>Incense itself came in many forms. It might be used as granules placed in a bag hung around the neck (Sg 1:13). In the main, however, perfumes were in a liquid form, dissolved in olive oil. A good example of this is the “holy anointing oil” (Ex 30:31). Such oils were used to anoint the priests and kings of Israel. Only priests were allowed to prepare and administer them. The incense contained raw spices beaten into a fine consistency and seasoned with salt to make them holy. Stacte, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense were mixed in equal proportions, all according to the art of the perfumer (Ex 30:34-37). The spices and incense for the sanctuary were donated as gifts (Nm 7:14-86; Jer 17:26; 41:5) and kept in the temple (Neh 13:5, 9). Josephus described the incense of his day as a much more complicated compound. He listed 13 ingredients in the best incense of the Herodian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IncenseOffering\">Incense Offering<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has demonstrated that incense offerings were common throughout the ancient Near East from the earliest times of organized worship. Egyptian paintings and reliefs from the New Kingdom occasionally show a man holding a censer of burning incense. Incense seems to have been used as well in the rituals of Assyria, Babylonia, and Arabia. Canaanite altars found at Megiddo and Tell Beit Mirsim have horned limestone altars (10th century <span>BC<\/span>) that may have been designed to hold a bowl of incense. Hence, it is safe to assume that incense offerings also played some part in the worship of Israel from the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Incense offerings seem to have served a multitude of purposes. They may have been used to drive away evil spirits and thereby sanctify all the utensils of the place of worship (Ex 30:26-29). Undoubtedly, the sweet smell of incense provided an antidote to the putrid odor of the animal sacrifices. Therefore, if God was to receive a sweet savor and thereby be pleased with an offering, incense was necessary to compensate for the smell of the sacrifices. However, spices were never added to the flesh of the animals or birds.<\/p>\n<p>In some instances, incense itself became a sacrifice. As a supplement to other sacrifices, frankincense alone was burned. To alleviate a plague, Aaron performed a ritual of burning incense (Nm 16:46-47). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest carried burning incense and hot coals on a pan (censer) into the Holy of Holies (Lv 16:12-13). The burning incense was thought to protect the life of the high priest, perhaps because the smoke kept him from seeing the full glory of God.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense was added to grain for offerings on the altar of burnt offering (Lv 2:1, 15-16; 6:15). It also accompanied the bread of the Presence (24:7) in two dishes. The bronze serpent destroyed by Hezekiah in his reform had become a profane object to which incense was burned (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Except on the Day of Atonement, the incense was offered on a special altar (Lv 4:7; cf. Ex 30:9), where it burned morning and evening and came to be called “perpetual incense” (Ex 30:7-8). Probably the altar of gold in Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 6:20-22) was the incense altar.<\/p>\n<p>Offering incense was a holy ritual, and persons who offered it with disrespect for procedures were condemned (Lv 10:1-2; Nm 16:6-50). Uzziah, the king of Judah, became a leper because he dared to offer incense (2 Chr 26:16-21). The burning of incense at “high places” is often criticized (e.g., 1 Kgs 22:43), either because the sanctuaries were idolatrous or because their priests did not take proper care as did the priesthood in Jerusalem. Prophets who criticized the offering of incense (Is 1:13; 66:3; Jer 6:20) did so to condemn a formalism that was void of devotion to the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningofIncense\">Meaning of Incense<\/p>\n<p>Since incense was such a precious commodity, incense was a fitting offering to God (Mal 1:11). Incense offerings also provided a tangible sense of God’s holiness in which the people could experience atonement for sin (Nm 16:46-47). The smoke rising to the sky symbolized the prayers of the people (Ps 141:2; Lk 1:10; Rv 5:8; 8:3-4). At the same time, the smoke in the temple symbolized the presence of God as it had been portrayed by the cloud in the wilderness (Ex 19:18; 33:9-10; Nm 11:25). Together with the rising sun, the smoke provided a powerful symbol for the glory of the Lord (Is 6:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The significance of incense is further enhanced by NT allusions. The Christian’s testimony about Christ is paralleled with the offering of incense (2 Cor 2:14-15). The sweet smell of the gospel is contrasted with the smell of death that leads to doom. Likewise, money from the Philippian Christians came to Paul in the spirit of an incense sacrifice (Phil 4:18), a costly expression of love and devotion. Finally, incense seems to sanctify and accompany the prayers of the saints into the presence of God (Rv 5:8; 8:3-4). None of the NT references call upon the Christian to offer incense, but rather to learn the devotion and dedication to holiness signified by the burning of this precious substance.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plants (Aloe; Balm; Calamus; Cinnamon; Frankincense; Galbanum; Henna; Hyssop; Myrrh; Nard; Storax Tree); Perfume; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INCENSE Fragrant spices and oils or sacrifice that sends up perfumed smoke to God in order to please him. People of every age have loved fragrant odors. In ancient times, sacrifices included sweet smells to make the deity happy. The aroma was a crucial factor in whether the god would accept the offering. Therefore, aromatic plants and exotic perfumes were precious for both secular and religious purposes. Spices and precious oils were valued along with silver and gold. The queen of Sheba broug...","summary_en":"INCENSE Fragrant spices and oils or sacrifice that sends up perfumed smoke to God in order to please him. People of every age have loved fragrant odors. In ancient times, sacrifices included sweet smells to make the deity happy. The aroma was a crucial factor in whether the god would accept the offering. Therefore, aromatic plants and exotic perfumes were precious for both secular and religious purposes. Spices and precious oils were valued along with silver and gold. The queen of Sheba broug...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":11808,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ezra","title_en":"Book of Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","summary_en":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24010,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Malachi","title_en":"Book of Malachi","content_ro":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","summary_en":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48264,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","summary_en":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75890,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","summary_en":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103516,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","summary_en":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131142,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:6<\/strong> Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 <span>BC<\/span>). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","summary_en":"13:6 Nehemiah had returned to Persia after twelve years of service in Jerusalem (445–433 BC). The text does not say how long he stayed there, but it was probably no longer than a year or two. When he arrived back in Jerusalem, he found Tobiah living in the Temple storeroom (13:1-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":27218,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37489,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48265,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","summary_en":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75891,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","summary_en":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103517,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","summary_en":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131143,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:8-9<\/strong> <em>I became very upset. . . . I demanded:<\/em> When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be <em>purified<\/em> and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","summary_en":"13:8-9 I became very upset. . . . I demanded: When people rejected God’s instructions, Nehemiah refused to be silent. • Everything associated with the Temple had to be purified and consecrated to God. The clothes that the priests and Levites wore (Exod 29), the priests themselves (Lev 8–9), the Temple building and altars (Lev 16:15-33), and all the holy things (1 Chr 23:28) were purified (cp. 2 Chr 29:5, 15-19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":6856,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Regulations concerning Cleanness and Uncleanness","title_en":"and Uncleanness, Regulations concerning, Cleanness","content_ro":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","summary_en":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30617,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":24061,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Malachi","title_en":"Book of Malachi","content_ro":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","summary_en":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27248,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30952,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48266,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","summary_en":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75892,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","summary_en":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103518,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","summary_en":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131144,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:10-12<\/strong> With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","summary_en":"13:10-12 With Tobiah using the storeroom, there had been no place to store tithes to feed the Levites and Temple singers (Num 18:21-24; see Neh 12:44, 47). They had to farm outside of Jerusalem (12:28-29) to support themselves and could not serve in the Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62148,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62204,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89774,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89830,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117400,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117456,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145026,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145082,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":15200,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanan","title_en":"Hanan","content_ro":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","summary_en":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24651,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mattaniah","title_en":"Mattaniah","content_ro":"<h3>MATTANIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Last king of Judah, whom King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon enthroned in place of his nephew Jehoiachin; his name subsequently was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17), and as such he was known in the other references to him in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Jeremiah. <em>See<\/em> Zedekiah.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Asaph’s descendant, named among the Levites living in postexilic Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:15; Neh 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Heman’s son, who helped lead music in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:4, 16).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Levite of the sons of Asaph, who was an ancestor of Jahaziel, a messenger of God in the days of King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Another Levite of the sons of Asaph who helped cleanse the temple during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li> 6–9. Four men of Israel who were exhorted by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:26-27, 30, 37).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the gatekeepers at the time of the dedication of the reconstructed wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:25).<\/li>\n<li>11. Grandfather of Hanan, a treasurer of the temple storehouse in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MATTANIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Last king of Judah, whom King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon enthroned in place of his nephew Jehoiachin; his name subsequently was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17), and as such he was known in the other references to him in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Jeremiah. <em>See<\/em> Zedekiah.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Asaph’s descendant, named among the Levites living in postexilic Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:15; Neh 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Heman’s son, who helped lead music in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:4, 16).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Levite of the sons of Asaph, who was an ancestor of Jahaziel, a messenger of God in the days of King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Another Levite of the sons of Asaph who helped cleanse the temple during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li> 6–9. Four men of Israel who were exhorted by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:26-27, 30, 37).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the gatekeepers at the time of the dedication of the reconstructed wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:25).<\/li>\n<li>11. Grandfather of Hanan, a treasurer of the temple storehouse in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MATTANIAH 1. Last king of Judah, whom King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon enthroned in place of his nephew Jehoiachin; his name subsequently was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17), and as such he was known in the other references to him in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Jeremiah. See Zedekiah. 2. Asaph’s descendant, named among the Levites living in postexilic Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:15; Neh 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35). 3. Heman’s son, who helped lead music in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:4, 16). 4...","summary_en":"MATTANIAH 1. Last king of Judah, whom King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon enthroned in place of his nephew Jehoiachin; his name subsequently was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17), and as such he was known in the other references to him in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Jeremiah. See Zedekiah. 2. Asaph’s descendant, named among the Levites living in postexilic Jerusalem (1 Chr 9:15; Neh 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35). 3. Heman’s son, who helped lead music in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:4, 16). 4...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29420,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pedaiah","title_en":"Pedaiah","content_ro":"<h3>PEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in Jerusalem after the return from exile.<\/li>\n<li>7. Levite appointed by Nehemiah as treasurer of the storehouse to distribute grain, wine, and oil to the priests who served in the temple (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in Jerusalem after the return from exile.<\/li>\n<li>7. Levite appointed by Nehemiah as treasurer of the storehouse to distribute grain, wine, and oil to the priests who served in the temple (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PEDAIAH 1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36). 2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19). 3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20). 4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25). 5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4). 6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in J...","summary_en":"PEDAIAH 1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36). 2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19). 3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20). 4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25). 5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4). 6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in J...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34829,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shelemiah","title_en":"Shelemiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHELEMIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Korahite from the tribe of Levi and a gatekeeper who was chosen by lot to guard the east gate of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:14); also named Meshelemiah (vv 1-2). <em>See<\/em> Meshelemiah.<\/li>\n<li>2–3. Two of Binnui’s sons, who were encouraged to divorce their foreign wives during Ezra’s postexilic reforms in Israel (Ezr 10:39-41).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Hananiah. Hananiah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:30).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest and one of the three men appointed by Nehemiah as the treasurers of the temple in Jerusalem. Their task was to oversee the distribution of the tithes among their fellow priests (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Cushi, the father of Nethaniah, and a forefather of Jehudi (Jer 36:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. Son of Abdeel who, with Jerahmeel and Seraiah, was commanded by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to seize Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Jehucal (Jer 37:3), alternately spelled Jucal in 38:1 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Hananiah and the father of Irijah. Irijah arrested Jeremiah for apparently deserting to the Babylonians (Jer 37:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHELEMIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Korahite from the tribe of Levi and a gatekeeper who was chosen by lot to guard the east gate of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:14); also named Meshelemiah (vv 1-2). <em>See<\/em> Meshelemiah.<\/li>\n<li>2–3. Two of Binnui’s sons, who were encouraged to divorce their foreign wives during Ezra’s postexilic reforms in Israel (Ezr 10:39-41).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Hananiah. Hananiah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:30).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest and one of the three men appointed by Nehemiah as the treasurers of the temple in Jerusalem. Their task was to oversee the distribution of the tithes among their fellow priests (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Cushi, the father of Nethaniah, and a forefather of Jehudi (Jer 36:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. Son of Abdeel who, with Jerahmeel and Seraiah, was commanded by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to seize Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Jehucal (Jer 37:3), alternately spelled Jucal in 38:1 (<span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Hananiah and the father of Irijah. Irijah arrested Jeremiah for apparently deserting to the Babylonians (Jer 37:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHELEMIAH 1. Korahite from the tribe of Levi and a gatekeeper who was chosen by lot to guard the east gate of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:14); also named Meshelemiah (vv 1-2). See Meshelemiah. 2–3. Two of Binnui’s sons, who were encouraged to divorce their foreign wives during Ezra’s postexilic reforms in Israel (Ezr 10:39-41). 4. Father of Hananiah. Hananiah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:30). 5. Priest and one of the three men appointed by Ne...","summary_en":"SHELEMIAH 1. Korahite from the tribe of Levi and a gatekeeper who was chosen by lot to guard the east gate of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:14); also named Meshelemiah (vv 1-2). See Meshelemiah. 2–3. Two of Binnui’s sons, who were encouraged to divorce their foreign wives during Ezra’s postexilic reforms in Israel (Ezr 10:39-41). 4. Father of Hananiah. Hananiah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:30). 5. Priest and one of the three men appointed by Ne...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37661,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Treasurer","title_en":"Treasurer","content_ro":"<h3>TREASURER<\/h3>\n<p>An officer in charge of financial matters. In OT times he had charge of the royal or sacred treasures, which consisted of goods, documents, money, and jewels. He was steward of the king’s possessions and overseer of the treasury. David appointed Azmaveth over the king’s treasuries, Jonathan over the treasuries in cities and villages (1 Chr 27:25), and Ahijah over the temple treasuries (26:20). Solomon’s temple treasury was in the care of Jehiel (29:7-8). In Isaiah’s day there was a treasurer for the household named Shebna (Is 22:15). An inscription found near Jerusalem may record his name.<\/p>\n<p>Treasurers held positions in other lands too. King Cyrus of Persia entrusted his temple treasures to Mithredath (Ezr 1:8). Artaxerxes ordered the treasurers of the province “beyond the river” to supply funds to Ezra the priest (7:21-22). Nehemiah appointed treasurers over storehouses to distribute goods (Neh 12:44; 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, two treasurers are known. The Ethiopian eunuch was in charge of the treasury of Candace, queen of Ethiopia (Acts 8:27), and Erastus was the city treasurer of Corinth (Rom 16:23). An inscription left at Corinth by Erastus, a Roman treasurer, may be his.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TREASURER<\/h3>\n<p>An officer in charge of financial matters. In OT times he had charge of the royal or sacred treasures, which consisted of goods, documents, money, and jewels. He was steward of the king’s possessions and overseer of the treasury. David appointed Azmaveth over the king’s treasuries, Jonathan over the treasuries in cities and villages (1 Chr 27:25), and Ahijah over the temple treasuries (26:20). Solomon’s temple treasury was in the care of Jehiel (29:7-8). In Isaiah’s day there was a treasurer for the household named Shebna (Is 22:15). An inscription found near Jerusalem may record his name.<\/p>\n<p>Treasurers held positions in other lands too. King Cyrus of Persia entrusted his temple treasures to Mithredath (Ezr 1:8). Artaxerxes ordered the treasurers of the province “beyond the river” to supply funds to Ezra the priest (7:21-22). Nehemiah appointed treasurers over storehouses to distribute goods (Neh 12:44; 13:13).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, two treasurers are known. The Ethiopian eunuch was in charge of the treasury of Candace, queen of Ethiopia (Acts 8:27), and Erastus was the city treasurer of Corinth (Rom 16:23). An inscription left at Corinth by Erastus, a Roman treasurer, may be his.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TREASURER An officer in charge of financial matters. In OT times he had charge of the royal or sacred treasures, which consisted of goods, documents, money, and jewels. He was steward of the king’s possessions and overseer of the treasury. David appointed Azmaveth over the king’s treasuries, Jonathan over the treasuries in cities and villages (1 Chr 27:25), and Ahijah over the temple treasuries (26:20). Solomon’s temple treasury was in the care of Jehiel (29:7-8). In Isaiah’s day there was a ...","summary_en":"TREASURER An officer in charge of financial matters. In OT times he had charge of the royal or sacred treasures, which consisted of goods, documents, money, and jewels. He was steward of the king’s possessions and overseer of the treasury. David appointed Azmaveth over the king’s treasuries, Jonathan over the treasuries in cities and villages (1 Chr 27:25), and Ahijah over the temple treasuries (26:20). Solomon’s temple treasury was in the care of Jehiel (29:7-8). In Isaiah’s day there was a ...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaccur","title_en":"Zaccur","content_ro":"<h3>ZACCUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite and father of Shammua, one of the 12 spies in the reconnaissance of Canaan (Nm 13:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Simeonite who was the son of Hammuel and the father of Shimei (1 Chr 4:26).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the descendants of Merari in the record of the divisions of the priests (1 Chr 24:27).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Asaph who was assigned responsibility for the temple service (1 Chr 25:2). Zaccur and his sons and brothers were assigned the third lot among the various duties for the temple musicians (1 Chr 25:10). Descendants of Zaccur were present at the dedication of the city wall following the exile (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the descendants of Bigvai who returned to Jerusalem with Ezra (Ezr 8:14).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Imri who worked on repairing Jerusalem’s wall in the vicinity of the Sheep Gate (Neh 3:2).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the Levites who signed Nehemiah’s covenant to obey the law of God (Neh 10:12).<\/li>\n<li>8. Son of Mattaniah and father of Hanan, the assistant to the storehouse treasurers during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 13:13). Some have suggested that he is the same as #7 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZACCUR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite and father of Shammua, one of the 12 spies in the reconnaissance of Canaan (Nm 13:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Simeonite who was the son of Hammuel and the father of Shimei (1 Chr 4:26).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the descendants of Merari in the record of the divisions of the priests (1 Chr 24:27).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the sons of Asaph who was assigned responsibility for the temple service (1 Chr 25:2). Zaccur and his sons and brothers were assigned the third lot among the various duties for the temple musicians (1 Chr 25:10). Descendants of Zaccur were present at the dedication of the city wall following the exile (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the descendants of Bigvai who returned to Jerusalem with Ezra (Ezr 8:14).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Imri who worked on repairing Jerusalem’s wall in the vicinity of the Sheep Gate (Neh 3:2).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the Levites who signed Nehemiah’s covenant to obey the law of God (Neh 10:12).<\/li>\n<li>8. Son of Mattaniah and father of Hanan, the assistant to the storehouse treasurers during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 13:13). Some have suggested that he is the same as #7 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZACCUR 1. Reubenite and father of Shammua, one of the 12 spies in the reconnaissance of Canaan (Nm 13:4). 2. Simeonite who was the son of Hammuel and the father of Shimei (1 Chr 4:26). 3. One of the descendants of Merari in the record of the divisions of the priests (1 Chr 24:27). 4. One of the sons of Asaph who was assigned responsibility for the temple service (1 Chr 25:2). Zaccur and his sons and brothers were assigned the third lot among the various duties for the temple musicians (1 Chr ...","summary_en":"ZACCUR 1. Reubenite and father of Shammua, one of the 12 spies in the reconnaissance of Canaan (Nm 13:4). 2. Simeonite who was the son of Hammuel and the father of Shimei (1 Chr 4:26). 3. One of the descendants of Merari in the record of the divisions of the priests (1 Chr 24:27). 4. One of the sons of Asaph who was assigned responsibility for the temple service (1 Chr 25:2). Zaccur and his sons and brothers were assigned the third lot among the various duties for the temple musicians (1 Chr ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38890,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zadok","title_en":"Zadok","content_ro":"<h3>ZADOK<\/h3>\n<p>Common OT name meaning “righteous one.”<\/p>\n<p>1. David’s priest, probably the most famous and influential of Israel’s high priests apart from Aaron. He first appeared at the time of Absalom’s revolt, when he and his fellow priest Abiathar showed their loyalty to David by coming to him with the ark, fully prepared to share his exile (2 Sm 15:24-29). David refused their offer and sent them back to Jerusalem to act in his interests.<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Samuel 8:17, Zadok is listed as the son of Ahitub, who is noted in 1 Samuel 14:3 as the grandson of Eli. In the genealogies of Chronicles, Zadok’s descent through Ahitub is traced back to Eleazar, the eldest son of Aaron (1 Chr 6:1-8, 50-53; Ezr 7:2-5), but with no reference to Eli. A slight problem emerges in that Zadok replaces the banished Abiathar, a descendant of Eli. This is regarded as the fulfillment of an earlier prophecy that the tenure of the high priestly office by Eli’s family would be broken in favor of a different branch of Aaron’s family (1 Sm 2:30-36; 1 Kgs 2:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In both summaries of David’s court officials (2 Sm 8:17; 20:25), Zadok is listed as one of David’s two principal priests, an office held throughout the latter part of David’s reign. When David was near death, a power struggle over the throne was precipitated by Adonijah, David’s oldest surviving son. With the support of Joab, the commander of the army, and the priest Abiathar, David’s long-standing friend, Adonijah declared himself king (1 Kgs 1:5-10). Nathan the prophet promptly intervened with Bathsheba as Solomon’s advocate. Zadok and Benaiah, the captain of the mercenary troops, supported Solomon. Adonijah’s cause was hopeless once David had indicated his approval of Nathan’s plans. Consequently, the discredited Abiathar was banished (2:26-27), leaving the loyal Zadok as Solomon’s chief priest (2:35; 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the centuries that followed, the descendants of Zadok preserved this dominance, and as Jerusalem’s prestige increased, so did their status. Azariah, the chief priest in Hezekiah’s reign, was a Zadokite (2 Chr 31:10). Ezekiel restricted the main priestly functions to the “sons of Zadok,” demoting the Levites generally to the rank of “temple caretakers” because of their apostasy during the monarchy (Ez 44:10-16). When the Jews came under Seleucid domination in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood, regarded as a political appointment, was taken away from the Zadokites. Conservative elements, however, like the Qumran covenanters, continued to look for its restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father-in-law of Uzziah and grandfather of Jotham, kings of Judah (2 Kgs 15:32-33; 2 Chr 27:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of Zadok, David’s priest (1 Chr 6:12; 9:11; Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>4. Young man of exceptional courage, the leader of a contingent that joined David at Hebron against Saul (1 Chr 12:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Baana, who helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Immer, who also shared in Nehemiah’s rebuilding operations (Neh 3:29).<\/li>\n<li>7. Signatory to Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:21) and perhaps identifiable with #5 or #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. One of three treasurers appointed by Nehemiah during his second term of office, called the scribe (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>9. Ancestor of Christ (Mt 1:14). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZADOK<\/h3>\n<p>Common OT name meaning “righteous one.”<\/p>\n<p>1. David’s priest, probably the most famous and influential of Israel’s high priests apart from Aaron. He first appeared at the time of Absalom’s revolt, when he and his fellow priest Abiathar showed their loyalty to David by coming to him with the ark, fully prepared to share his exile (2 Sm 15:24-29). David refused their offer and sent them back to Jerusalem to act in his interests.<\/p>\n<p>In 2 Samuel 8:17, Zadok is listed as the son of Ahitub, who is noted in 1 Samuel 14:3 as the grandson of Eli. In the genealogies of Chronicles, Zadok’s descent through Ahitub is traced back to Eleazar, the eldest son of Aaron (1 Chr 6:1-8, 50-53; Ezr 7:2-5), but with no reference to Eli. A slight problem emerges in that Zadok replaces the banished Abiathar, a descendant of Eli. This is regarded as the fulfillment of an earlier prophecy that the tenure of the high priestly office by Eli’s family would be broken in favor of a different branch of Aaron’s family (1 Sm 2:30-36; 1 Kgs 2:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In both summaries of David’s court officials (2 Sm 8:17; 20:25), Zadok is listed as one of David’s two principal priests, an office held throughout the latter part of David’s reign. When David was near death, a power struggle over the throne was precipitated by Adonijah, David’s oldest surviving son. With the support of Joab, the commander of the army, and the priest Abiathar, David’s long-standing friend, Adonijah declared himself king (1 Kgs 1:5-10). Nathan the prophet promptly intervened with Bathsheba as Solomon’s advocate. Zadok and Benaiah, the captain of the mercenary troops, supported Solomon. Adonijah’s cause was hopeless once David had indicated his approval of Nathan’s plans. Consequently, the discredited Abiathar was banished (2:26-27), leaving the loyal Zadok as Solomon’s chief priest (2:35; 4:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the centuries that followed, the descendants of Zadok preserved this dominance, and as Jerusalem’s prestige increased, so did their status. Azariah, the chief priest in Hezekiah’s reign, was a Zadokite (2 Chr 31:10). Ezekiel restricted the main priestly functions to the “sons of Zadok,” demoting the Levites generally to the rank of “temple caretakers” because of their apostasy during the monarchy (Ez 44:10-16). When the Jews came under Seleucid domination in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood, regarded as a political appointment, was taken away from the Zadokites. Conservative elements, however, like the Qumran covenanters, continued to look for its restoration.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father-in-law of Uzziah and grandfather of Jotham, kings of Judah (2 Kgs 15:32-33; 2 Chr 27:1).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of Zadok, David’s priest (1 Chr 6:12; 9:11; Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>4. Young man of exceptional courage, the leader of a contingent that joined David at Hebron against Saul (1 Chr 12:28).<\/li>\n<li>5. Son of Baana, who helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Son of Immer, who also shared in Nehemiah’s rebuilding operations (Neh 3:29).<\/li>\n<li>7. Signatory to Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:21) and perhaps identifiable with #5 or #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. One of three treasurers appointed by Nehemiah during his second term of office, called the scribe (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>9. Ancestor of Christ (Mt 1:14). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZADOK Common OT name meaning “righteous one.” 1. David’s priest, probably the most famous and influential of Israel’s high priests apart from Aaron. He first appeared at the time of Absalom’s revolt, when he and his fellow priest Abiathar showed their loyalty to David by coming to him with the ark, fully prepared to share his exile (2 Sm 15:24-29). David refused their offer and sent them back to Jerusalem to act in his interests. In 2 Samuel 8:17, Zadok is listed as the son of Ahitub, who is ...","summary_en":"ZADOK Common OT name meaning “righteous one.” 1. David’s priest, probably the most famous and influential of Israel’s high priests apart from Aaron. He first appeared at the time of Absalom’s revolt, when he and his fellow priest Abiathar showed their loyalty to David by coming to him with the ark, fully prepared to share his exile (2 Sm 15:24-29). David refused their offer and sent them back to Jerusalem to act in his interests. In 2 Samuel 8:17, Zadok is listed as the son of Ahitub, who is ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48267,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","summary_en":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75893,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","summary_en":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103519,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","summary_en":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131145,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:13<\/strong> <em>These men had an excellent reputation:<\/em> Cp. Acts 6:1-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","summary_en":"13:13 These men had an excellent reputation: Cp. Acts 6:1-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":27220,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30954,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48268,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","summary_en":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75894,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","summary_en":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103520,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","summary_en":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131146,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:14<\/strong> Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to <em>remember<\/em> his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","summary_en":"13:14 Because he stood up for God, Nehemiah asked God to remember his deeds and not abandon him in his time of need. Perhaps he experienced opposition from those he had corrected. See similar refrains in 13:22, 29, 31.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62151,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89777,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117403,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":41806,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69432,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97058,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124684,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27227,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30950,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33430,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sabbath","title_en":"Sabbath","content_ro":"<h3>SABBATH<\/h3>\n<p>Derivation of a Hebrew word that means “cease” or “desist.” The Sabbath was a day (from Friday evening until Saturday evening in Jesus’ time) when all ordinary work stopped. The Scriptures relate that God gave his people the Sabbath as an opportunity to serve him and as a reminder of two great truths in the Bible—Creation and redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between Creation and the Sabbath is first expressed in Genesis 2:2-3. God “ceased” his work in Creation after six days and then “blessed” the seventh day and “declared it holy.” In the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11), God’s “blessing” and “setting aside” of the seventh day after Creation (the words used are the same as those in Genesis) form the basis of his demand that people should observe the seventh day as a day of Sabbath rest.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of God resting from his work is a startling one. It comes across even more vividly in Exodus 31:17, where the Lord tells Moses how he was refreshed by his day of rest. This picture of the Creator as a manual laborer is one the Bible often paints. No doubt it is presented in vividly human terms in Exodus to reinforce the fundamental Sabbath lesson that people must follow the pattern their Creator has set for them. One day’s rest in seven is a necessity for individuals, families, households, and even animals (Ex 20:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Sabbath’s setting in the biblical account of Creation implies that it is one of those OT standards that are meant for all people and not just for Israel. The inclusion of the Sabbath law in the Ten Commandments underlines this important truth. The Decalogue occupied a special place in OT law. Alone of all God’s instructions, it was spoken by his audible voice (Ex 20:1), written by his finger (31:18), and placed in the tabernacle ark at the heart of Israel’s worship (25:16). The NT, too, confirms the strong impression that the Decalogue as a whole embodies principles that are permanently valid for all people in all places at all times. Whether or not Sunday is recognized as the Christian Sabbath, one is obliged to accept the central principle of this biblical teaching as far as the Sabbath is concerned. God’s instructions require people to observe a regular weekly break from work.<\/p>\n<p>Significantly, the second main strand of the Bible’s Sabbath teaching—that of redemption—also features in a list of the Ten Commandments. The Sabbath law (already noted in Ex 20:8-11) reappears in Deuteronomy 5:12-15, but here a different reason is attached to its observance: “Remember that you were once slaves in Egypt and that the <span>Lord<\/span> your God brought you out with amazing power and mighty deeds. That is why the <span>Lord<\/span> your God has commanded you to observe the Sabbath day” (v 15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The differences between these two accounts of the fourth commandment are important. The first (Ex 20) is addressed, <em>through<\/em> Israel, to all people as created beings. The second (Dt 5) is directed <em>to<\/em> Israel as God’s redeemed people. So the Sabbath is God’s signpost, pointing not only to his goodness toward all people as their Creator but also to his mercy toward his chosen people as their Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>There is one other significant point in Deuteronomy’s version of the Sabbath commandment that must not be missed. The prohibition of all work on the Sabbath day is followed by an explanatory note—“On that day no one in your household may do any kind of work. This includes you, your sons and daughters, your male and female servants, your oxen and donkeys and other livestock, and any foreigners living among you. All your male and female servants must rest as you do” (Dt 5:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Practical concern for others is a feature of all the OT’s covenant teaching. So God’s loving concern for Israel in her Egyptian slavery must be matched by the Israelite family’s loving concern for those who served them. The Sabbath offered an ideal outlet for the practical expression of that concern. Jesus was especially keen to rescue this humanitarian side of Sabbath observance from the mass of callous regulations that threatened to suffocate it in his day (see, e.g., Mk 3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The OT’s provision for a “sabbatical year” develops this humanitarian theme further (see Ex 23:10-12; Lv 25:1-7; Dt 15:1-11; also the regulations for the “year of jubilee” in Lv 25:8-55). Every seventh year the land was to lie fallow and be uncultivated (Lv 25:4). It needed a regular rest just as much as the people it sustained. The primary purpose of this law was benevolent: “But you, your male and female slaves, your hired servants, and any foreigners who live with you may eat the produce that grows naturally during the Sabbath year. And your livestock and the wild animals will also be allowed to eat of the land’s bounty” (vv 6-7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Deuteronomy 15:1-11 extends the same humanitarian principle into the world of commerce. The sabbatical year must see the canceling of all debts within God’s redeemed community. For the tight-fisted who might be tempted to refuse a loan if the sabbatical year was imminent, the law added a warning and a promise: “Do not be mean-spirited and refuse someone a loan because the year of release is close at hand. If you refuse to make the loan and the needy person cries out to the <span>Lord<\/span>, you will be considered guilty of sin. Give freely without begrudging it, and the <span>Lord<\/span> your God will bless you in everything you do” (Dt 15:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Observing the sabbatical year was obviously a great test of the people’s obedience to God and of their willingness to depend on him for their livelihood. Sometimes the temptation to turn a blind eye was too strong. But history testifies to Israel’s courage in observing the letter of this law on many occasions, despite threats of invasion and famine. Both Alexander the Great and the Romans excused Jews from paying taxes every seventh year in recognition of the depth of their religious convictions.<\/p>\n<p>Returning from the seventh year to the seventh day, the OT law codes go to considerable lengths to buttress the Sabbath ban on work by defining what may and may not be done by God’s people on the Sabbath day. The prohibitions were not meant to rule out activity of any kind. Their aim was to stop regular, everyday work, because if God had set aside the Sabbath (Ex 20:11), the most obvious way of profaning it was to treat it just like any other day. Rules were spelled out in specific terms that the farmer (34:21), the salesman (Jer 17:27), and even the housewife (Ex 35:2-3) would understand.<\/p>\n<p>The details may seem trivial, but obedience to the Sabbath law was seen as the main test of the people’s allegiance to the Lord. It was made quite clear that willful disobedience was a capital offense (Ex 35:2), and the fate of the person found gathering wood in defiance of Sabbath regulations showed that this was no idle threat (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Hemmed in by so many rules and regulations (and with the death penalty overhanging all), the Sabbath easily could have become a day of fear—a day when the people were more afraid of committing an offense than worshiping the Lord and enjoying a weekly rest. But the Sabbath was intended to be a blessing, not a burden. Above everything else, it was a weekly sign that the Lord loved his people and wanted to draw them into an ever-closer relationship with himself. Those who valued that relationship enjoyed the Sabbath, calling it a delight (Is 58:13-14). Nowhere does the OT express its sheer joy in Sabbath worship more exuberantly than in Psalm 92, which has the title “A Song for the Sabbath.”<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets, were, however, far from blind to the darker side of human nature. They knew that a great deal of Sabbath observance was a sham. Many people treated the Sabbath day more as holiday than holy day, an opportunity for self-indulgence rather than delighting in the Lord (Is 58:13). Some greedy tradesmen found its restrictions an annoying irritant (Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>As God’s spokesman, the prophets did not shrink from exposing such neglect and abuse (Ez 22:26). Those who go through the motions of Sabbath worship with unrepentant hearts nauseate the Lord, Isaiah said (Is 1:10-15). As a symptom of rebellion against God, Jerusalem’s Sabbath breaking will bring destruction on the city, thunders Jeremiah (Jer 17:27). The Lord has been very forbearing with his people, warned Ezekiel, but prolonged neglect of his Sabbath makes judgment a certainty (Ez 20:12-24).<\/p>\n<p>When the ax of judgment fell (in the exile to Babylon, 586 <span>BC<\/span>), the surviving remnant of the nation took the lesson to heart. Sabbath keeping was one of the few distinctive marks faithful Jews could retain in a foreign land, so it assumed extra significance. At the prompting of prophets like Ezekiel, who set out rules for Sabbath worship in the rebuilt temple at Jerusalem (Ez 44:24; 45:17; 46:3), and under the leadership of men like Nehemiah, the returning exiles were more careful than their predecessors in observing the Sabbath day (Neh 10:31; 13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the first century, some Jews in Palestine developed several rules for promoting the observance of the Sabbath. Two tractates of the Mishnah are devoted exclusively to these Sabbath rules and regulations. Their main purpose is to define work (one tractate does so under 39 headings) in an attempt to show every Israelite what is and is not permitted on the Sabbath. Unfortunately, this led to such hairsplitting complexities and evasions that ecclesiastical lawyers often differed among themselves in their interpretations, with the inevitable result that the main purpose of the Sabbath became lost beneath a mass of legalistic detail. The rabbis themselves were aware of how much they were adding to the straightforward teaching of the OT. As one of them put it, “The rules about the sabbath . . . are as mountains hanging by a hair, for Scripture is scanty and the rules many.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had many confrontations with the Jewish religious leaders over Sabbath observances. From their perspective, Jesus was a Sabbath breaker and therefore a lawbreaker. Jesus, however, never saw himself as a Sabbath breaker. He went to synagogue regularly on the Sabbath day (Lk 4:16). He read the lesson, preached, and taught (Mk 1:21; Lk 13:10). He clearly accepted the principle that the Sabbath was an appropriate day for worship.<\/p>\n<p>His point of collision with the Pharisees was the point at which their tradition departed from biblical teaching. He made this clear when he defended his disciples by appealing to Scripture, after they had been accused of breaking Sabbath tradition by walking through grainfields and breaking off heads of wheat (which fell into the category of “harvesting,” according to the Pharisees; Mk 2:23-26). He followed this up with a remark that took his hearers straight back to God’s Creation purpose for the Sabbath: “The Sabbath was made to benefit people, and not people to benefit the Sabbath” (Mk 2:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbinic tradition had exalted the institution above the people it was meant to serve. By making it an end in itself, the Pharisees had effectively robbed the Sabbath of one of its main purposes. Jesus’ words must have sounded uncomfortably familiar in his opponents’ ears. A famous rabbi had once said, “The Sabbath is given over to you, but you are not given over to the Sabbath.”<\/p>\n<p>More than anything else, Jesus’ Sabbath healings put him on a collision course with rabbinic restrictions. The OT does not forbid cures on the Sabbath day, but the rabbis labeled all healing as work, which must always be avoided on the Sabbath unless life was at risk. Jesus fearlessly exposed the callousness and absurd inconsistencies to which this attitude led. How, he asked, could it be right to circumcise a baby or lead an animal to water on the Sabbath day (which tradition allowed) but wrong to heal a chronically handicapped woman and a crippled man, even if their lives were not in immediate danger (Lk 13:10-17; Jn 7:21-24)? The Sabbath, he taught, was a particularly appropriate day for acts of mercy (Mk 3:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus, the man from heaven, claimed that he was Lord of the Sabbath (Mk 2:28; cf. Mt 12:5-8). Just as God kept working, despite his Creation rest, to sustain the world in his mercy, so Jesus would continue to teach and to heal on the Sabbath day (Jn 5:2-17). But one day his redemptive work would be complete, and then the Sabbath’s purpose as a sign of redemption would be accomplished.<\/p>\n<p>Living on the other side of Jesus’ death and resurrection, Paul was quick to grasp the significance of both for Sabbath observance. He did not go so far as to ban all observance of the Jewish Sabbath. Indeed, he attended many Sabbath synagogue services himself in his evangelistic travels (see, e.g., Acts 13:14-16). Jewish Christians who insisted on keeping up their Sabbath practices were free to do so, provided they respected the opinions of those who differed (Rom 14:5-6, 13). But any suggestion that observing the Jewish calendar was necessary for salvation must be resisted (Gal 4:8-11). For Paul considered the Sabbath to be a shadow, while Christ himself is the reality of that shadow (Col 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, it is the writer of the Letter to the Hebrews who explains how the twin biblical “sabbath themes” of creation and redemption find their joint fulfillment in Christ. He did so by linking together the ideas of God’s rest after Creation and his redemptive act in bringing Israel to her “rest” in Canaan, and by showing how both relate to the present and future rest that Christians can and do enjoy in Jesus (Heb 4:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God intends all his people to share his rest—that is, his promise (Heb 4:1). He showed this intention clearly when he brought Israel to the Promised Land, but that did not mark the complete fulfillment of his promise. The full, complete rest still waiting for the people of God is in heaven. Christ has already entered there. He is resting from his work, just as God did after the Creation. And because of his redeeming work, he invites all those who believe in him to share that same “sabbath rest” now (v 9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Day, The; Sabbath Day’s Journey; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SABBATH<\/h3>\n<p>Derivation of a Hebrew word that means “cease” or “desist.” The Sabbath was a day (from Friday evening until Saturday evening in Jesus’ time) when all ordinary work stopped. The Scriptures relate that God gave his people the Sabbath as an opportunity to serve him and as a reminder of two great truths in the Bible—Creation and redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between Creation and the Sabbath is first expressed in Genesis 2:2-3. God “ceased” his work in Creation after six days and then “blessed” the seventh day and “declared it holy.” In the fourth commandment (Ex 20:8-11), God’s “blessing” and “setting aside” of the seventh day after Creation (the words used are the same as those in Genesis) form the basis of his demand that people should observe the seventh day as a day of Sabbath rest.<\/p>\n<p>The idea of God resting from his work is a startling one. It comes across even more vividly in Exodus 31:17, where the Lord tells Moses how he was refreshed by his day of rest. This picture of the Creator as a manual laborer is one the Bible often paints. No doubt it is presented in vividly human terms in Exodus to reinforce the fundamental Sabbath lesson that people must follow the pattern their Creator has set for them. One day’s rest in seven is a necessity for individuals, families, households, and even animals (Ex 20:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Sabbath’s setting in the biblical account of Creation implies that it is one of those OT standards that are meant for all people and not just for Israel. The inclusion of the Sabbath law in the Ten Commandments underlines this important truth. The Decalogue occupied a special place in OT law. Alone of all God’s instructions, it was spoken by his audible voice (Ex 20:1), written by his finger (31:18), and placed in the tabernacle ark at the heart of Israel’s worship (25:16). The NT, too, confirms the strong impression that the Decalogue as a whole embodies principles that are permanently valid for all people in all places at all times. Whether or not Sunday is recognized as the Christian Sabbath, one is obliged to accept the central principle of this biblical teaching as far as the Sabbath is concerned. God’s instructions require people to observe a regular weekly break from work.<\/p>\n<p>Significantly, the second main strand of the Bible’s Sabbath teaching—that of redemption—also features in a list of the Ten Commandments. The Sabbath law (already noted in Ex 20:8-11) reappears in Deuteronomy 5:12-15, but here a different reason is attached to its observance: “Remember that you were once slaves in Egypt and that the <span>Lord<\/span> your God brought you out with amazing power and mighty deeds. That is why the <span>Lord<\/span> your God has commanded you to observe the Sabbath day” (v 15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The differences between these two accounts of the fourth commandment are important. The first (Ex 20) is addressed, <em>through<\/em> Israel, to all people as created beings. The second (Dt 5) is directed <em>to<\/em> Israel as God’s redeemed people. So the Sabbath is God’s signpost, pointing not only to his goodness toward all people as their Creator but also to his mercy toward his chosen people as their Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>There is one other significant point in Deuteronomy’s version of the Sabbath commandment that must not be missed. The prohibition of all work on the Sabbath day is followed by an explanatory note—“On that day no one in your household may do any kind of work. This includes you, your sons and daughters, your male and female servants, your oxen and donkeys and other livestock, and any foreigners living among you. All your male and female servants must rest as you do” (Dt 5:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Practical concern for others is a feature of all the OT’s covenant teaching. So God’s loving concern for Israel in her Egyptian slavery must be matched by the Israelite family’s loving concern for those who served them. The Sabbath offered an ideal outlet for the practical expression of that concern. Jesus was especially keen to rescue this humanitarian side of Sabbath observance from the mass of callous regulations that threatened to suffocate it in his day (see, e.g., Mk 3:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>The OT’s provision for a “sabbatical year” develops this humanitarian theme further (see Ex 23:10-12; Lv 25:1-7; Dt 15:1-11; also the regulations for the “year of jubilee” in Lv 25:8-55). Every seventh year the land was to lie fallow and be uncultivated (Lv 25:4). It needed a regular rest just as much as the people it sustained. The primary purpose of this law was benevolent: “But you, your male and female slaves, your hired servants, and any foreigners who live with you may eat the produce that grows naturally during the Sabbath year. And your livestock and the wild animals will also be allowed to eat of the land’s bounty” (vv 6-7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Deuteronomy 15:1-11 extends the same humanitarian principle into the world of commerce. The sabbatical year must see the canceling of all debts within God’s redeemed community. For the tight-fisted who might be tempted to refuse a loan if the sabbatical year was imminent, the law added a warning and a promise: “Do not be mean-spirited and refuse someone a loan because the year of release is close at hand. If you refuse to make the loan and the needy person cries out to the <span>Lord<\/span>, you will be considered guilty of sin. Give freely without begrudging it, and the <span>Lord<\/span> your God will bless you in everything you do” (Dt 15:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Observing the sabbatical year was obviously a great test of the people’s obedience to God and of their willingness to depend on him for their livelihood. Sometimes the temptation to turn a blind eye was too strong. But history testifies to Israel’s courage in observing the letter of this law on many occasions, despite threats of invasion and famine. Both Alexander the Great and the Romans excused Jews from paying taxes every seventh year in recognition of the depth of their religious convictions.<\/p>\n<p>Returning from the seventh year to the seventh day, the OT law codes go to considerable lengths to buttress the Sabbath ban on work by defining what may and may not be done by God’s people on the Sabbath day. The prohibitions were not meant to rule out activity of any kind. Their aim was to stop regular, everyday work, because if God had set aside the Sabbath (Ex 20:11), the most obvious way of profaning it was to treat it just like any other day. Rules were spelled out in specific terms that the farmer (34:21), the salesman (Jer 17:27), and even the housewife (Ex 35:2-3) would understand.<\/p>\n<p>The details may seem trivial, but obedience to the Sabbath law was seen as the main test of the people’s allegiance to the Lord. It was made quite clear that willful disobedience was a capital offense (Ex 35:2), and the fate of the person found gathering wood in defiance of Sabbath regulations showed that this was no idle threat (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Hemmed in by so many rules and regulations (and with the death penalty overhanging all), the Sabbath easily could have become a day of fear—a day when the people were more afraid of committing an offense than worshiping the Lord and enjoying a weekly rest. But the Sabbath was intended to be a blessing, not a burden. Above everything else, it was a weekly sign that the Lord loved his people and wanted to draw them into an ever-closer relationship with himself. Those who valued that relationship enjoyed the Sabbath, calling it a delight (Is 58:13-14). Nowhere does the OT express its sheer joy in Sabbath worship more exuberantly than in Psalm 92, which has the title “A Song for the Sabbath.”<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets, were, however, far from blind to the darker side of human nature. They knew that a great deal of Sabbath observance was a sham. Many people treated the Sabbath day more as holiday than holy day, an opportunity for self-indulgence rather than delighting in the Lord (Is 58:13). Some greedy tradesmen found its restrictions an annoying irritant (Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>As God’s spokesman, the prophets did not shrink from exposing such neglect and abuse (Ez 22:26). Those who go through the motions of Sabbath worship with unrepentant hearts nauseate the Lord, Isaiah said (Is 1:10-15). As a symptom of rebellion against God, Jerusalem’s Sabbath breaking will bring destruction on the city, thunders Jeremiah (Jer 17:27). The Lord has been very forbearing with his people, warned Ezekiel, but prolonged neglect of his Sabbath makes judgment a certainty (Ez 20:12-24).<\/p>\n<p>When the ax of judgment fell (in the exile to Babylon, 586 <span>BC<\/span>), the surviving remnant of the nation took the lesson to heart. Sabbath keeping was one of the few distinctive marks faithful Jews could retain in a foreign land, so it assumed extra significance. At the prompting of prophets like Ezekiel, who set out rules for Sabbath worship in the rebuilt temple at Jerusalem (Ez 44:24; 45:17; 46:3), and under the leadership of men like Nehemiah, the returning exiles were more careful than their predecessors in observing the Sabbath day (Neh 10:31; 13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the first century, some Jews in Palestine developed several rules for promoting the observance of the Sabbath. Two tractates of the Mishnah are devoted exclusively to these Sabbath rules and regulations. Their main purpose is to define work (one tractate does so under 39 headings) in an attempt to show every Israelite what is and is not permitted on the Sabbath. Unfortunately, this led to such hairsplitting complexities and evasions that ecclesiastical lawyers often differed among themselves in their interpretations, with the inevitable result that the main purpose of the Sabbath became lost beneath a mass of legalistic detail. The rabbis themselves were aware of how much they were adding to the straightforward teaching of the OT. As one of them put it, “The rules about the sabbath . . . are as mountains hanging by a hair, for Scripture is scanty and the rules many.”<\/p>\n<p>Jesus had many confrontations with the Jewish religious leaders over Sabbath observances. From their perspective, Jesus was a Sabbath breaker and therefore a lawbreaker. Jesus, however, never saw himself as a Sabbath breaker. He went to synagogue regularly on the Sabbath day (Lk 4:16). He read the lesson, preached, and taught (Mk 1:21; Lk 13:10). He clearly accepted the principle that the Sabbath was an appropriate day for worship.<\/p>\n<p>His point of collision with the Pharisees was the point at which their tradition departed from biblical teaching. He made this clear when he defended his disciples by appealing to Scripture, after they had been accused of breaking Sabbath tradition by walking through grainfields and breaking off heads of wheat (which fell into the category of “harvesting,” according to the Pharisees; Mk 2:23-26). He followed this up with a remark that took his hearers straight back to God’s Creation purpose for the Sabbath: “The Sabbath was made to benefit people, and not people to benefit the Sabbath” (Mk 2:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbinic tradition had exalted the institution above the people it was meant to serve. By making it an end in itself, the Pharisees had effectively robbed the Sabbath of one of its main purposes. Jesus’ words must have sounded uncomfortably familiar in his opponents’ ears. A famous rabbi had once said, “The Sabbath is given over to you, but you are not given over to the Sabbath.”<\/p>\n<p>More than anything else, Jesus’ Sabbath healings put him on a collision course with rabbinic restrictions. The OT does not forbid cures on the Sabbath day, but the rabbis labeled all healing as work, which must always be avoided on the Sabbath unless life was at risk. Jesus fearlessly exposed the callousness and absurd inconsistencies to which this attitude led. How, he asked, could it be right to circumcise a baby or lead an animal to water on the Sabbath day (which tradition allowed) but wrong to heal a chronically handicapped woman and a crippled man, even if their lives were not in immediate danger (Lk 13:10-17; Jn 7:21-24)? The Sabbath, he taught, was a particularly appropriate day for acts of mercy (Mk 3:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus, the man from heaven, claimed that he was Lord of the Sabbath (Mk 2:28; cf. Mt 12:5-8). Just as God kept working, despite his Creation rest, to sustain the world in his mercy, so Jesus would continue to teach and to heal on the Sabbath day (Jn 5:2-17). But one day his redemptive work would be complete, and then the Sabbath’s purpose as a sign of redemption would be accomplished.<\/p>\n<p>Living on the other side of Jesus’ death and resurrection, Paul was quick to grasp the significance of both for Sabbath observance. He did not go so far as to ban all observance of the Jewish Sabbath. Indeed, he attended many Sabbath synagogue services himself in his evangelistic travels (see, e.g., Acts 13:14-16). Jewish Christians who insisted on keeping up their Sabbath practices were free to do so, provided they respected the opinions of those who differed (Rom 14:5-6, 13). But any suggestion that observing the Jewish calendar was necessary for salvation must be resisted (Gal 4:8-11). For Paul considered the Sabbath to be a shadow, while Christ himself is the reality of that shadow (Col 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, it is the writer of the Letter to the Hebrews who explains how the twin biblical “sabbath themes” of creation and redemption find their joint fulfillment in Christ. He did so by linking together the ideas of God’s rest after Creation and his redemptive act in bringing Israel to her “rest” in Canaan, and by showing how both relate to the present and future rest that Christians can and do enjoy in Jesus (Heb 4:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God intends all his people to share his rest—that is, his promise (Heb 4:1). He showed this intention clearly when he brought Israel to the Promised Land, but that did not mark the complete fulfillment of his promise. The full, complete rest still waiting for the people of God is in heaven. Christ has already entered there. He is resting from his work, just as God did after the Creation. And because of his redeeming work, he invites all those who believe in him to share that same “sabbath rest” now (v 9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Day, The; Sabbath Day’s Journey; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SABBATH Derivation of a Hebrew word that means “cease” or “desist.” The Sabbath was a day (from Friday evening until Saturday evening in Jesus’ time) when all ordinary work stopped. The Scriptures relate that God gave his people the Sabbath as an opportunity to serve him and as a reminder of two great truths in the Bible—Creation and redemption. In the Old Testament The relationship between Creation and the Sabbath is first expressed in Genesis 2:2-3. God “ceased” his work in Creation after s...","summary_en":"SABBATH Derivation of a Hebrew word that means “cease” or “desist.” The Sabbath was a day (from Friday evening until Saturday evening in Jesus’ time) when all ordinary work stopped. The Scriptures relate that God gave his people the Sabbath as an opportunity to serve him and as a reminder of two great truths in the Bible—Creation and redemption. In the Old Testament The relationship between Creation and the Sabbath is first expressed in Genesis 2:2-3. God “ceased” his work in Creation after s...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48269,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","summary_en":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48270,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","summary_en":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75895,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","summary_en":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75896,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","summary_en":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103521,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","summary_en":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103522,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","summary_en":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-31<\/strong> Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","summary_en":"13:15-31 Nehemiah instituted two additional reforms to restore proper Sabbath observance (13:15-22) and proper marriage practices (13:23-31). These two sections have similar structures: Nehemiah discovered a problem, corrected the problem, and asked God for his blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:15-16<\/strong> Normal work was to cease <em>on the Sabbath<\/em> in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","summary_en":"13:15-16 Normal work was to cease on the Sabbath in order to keep it holy (Exod 20:8-11; 31:14-17; 35:2-3; Jer 17:19-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62149,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89775,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117401,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145027,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":25161,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Merchant","title_en":"Merchant","content_ro":"<h3>MERCHANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some merchants traveled afar (Neh 13:16-20). Desert peoples with caravans traded their wares in many lands (Ez 27:15, 20-23; 38:13). They operated in bazaars and set up shops for trade (1 Kgs 20:34; Neh 3:31; 13:19-20). Commodities were held in storehouses (Gn 41:49; 1 Kgs 9:19). The sons of Jacob traded in Egypt (Gn 43:11). In Solomon’s day, trade greatly expanded (1 Kgs 9:26-27; 10:28). During the exile, Jews became involved in merchant activity in Babylonia, and many never returned to Palestine. In Jerusalem the merchants helped Nehemiah to rebuild the wall (Neh 3:31-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MERCHANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some merchants traveled afar (Neh 13:16-20). Desert peoples with caravans traded their wares in many lands (Ez 27:15, 20-23; 38:13). They operated in bazaars and set up shops for trade (1 Kgs 20:34; Neh 3:31; 13:19-20). Commodities were held in storehouses (Gn 41:49; 1 Kgs 9:19). The sons of Jacob traded in Egypt (Gn 43:11). In Solomon’s day, trade greatly expanded (1 Kgs 9:26-27; 10:28). During the exile, Jews became involved in merchant activity in Babylonia, and many never returned to Palestine. In Jerusalem the merchants helped Nehemiah to rebuild the wall (Neh 3:31-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MERCHANT A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some mercha...","summary_en":"MERCHANT A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some mercha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":25165,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Merchant","title_en":"Merchant","content_ro":"<h3>MERCHANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some merchants traveled afar (Neh 13:16-20). Desert peoples with caravans traded their wares in many lands (Ez 27:15, 20-23; 38:13). They operated in bazaars and set up shops for trade (1 Kgs 20:34; Neh 3:31; 13:19-20). Commodities were held in storehouses (Gn 41:49; 1 Kgs 9:19). The sons of Jacob traded in Egypt (Gn 43:11). In Solomon’s day, trade greatly expanded (1 Kgs 9:26-27; 10:28). During the exile, Jews became involved in merchant activity in Babylonia, and many never returned to Palestine. In Jerusalem the merchants helped Nehemiah to rebuild the wall (Neh 3:31-32).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MERCHANT<\/h3>\n<p>A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some merchants traveled afar (Neh 13:16-20). Desert peoples with caravans traded their wares in many lands (Ez 27:15, 20-23; 38:13). They operated in bazaars and set up shops for trade (1 Kgs 20:34; Neh 3:31; 13:19-20). Commodities were held in storehouses (Gn 41:49; 1 Kgs 9:19). The sons of Jacob traded in Egypt (Gn 43:11). In Solomon’s day, trade greatly expanded (1 Kgs 9:26-27; 10:28). During the exile, Jews became involved in merchant activity in Babylonia, and many never returned to Palestine. In Jerusalem the merchants helped Nehemiah to rebuild the wall (Neh 3:31-32).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MERCHANT A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some mercha...","summary_en":"MERCHANT A person who buys and sells commodities for profit. The barter system of trade gave way in time to a system where professional merchants facilitated the exchange of goods. At first, it was for payment in silver pieces (Gn 23:16) and then in coinage or some other medium of exchange. Merchants operated locally and internationally with Arameans (1 Kgs 20:34; Ez 27:16-18), Canaanites and Phoenicians (Is 23:2, 8), Assyrians (Na 3:16), Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Some mercha...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48271,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:19","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","summary_en":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75897,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:19","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","summary_en":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103523,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:19","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","summary_en":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:19","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:19<\/strong> The Sabbath began at sunset on <em>Friday evening<\/em> and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","summary_en":"13:19 The Sabbath began at sunset on Friday evening and lasted until sunset on Saturday evening.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":48272,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","summary_en":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75898,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","summary_en":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103524,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","summary_en":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:22","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:22<\/strong> <em>Have compassion on me:<\/em> Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s <em>unfailing love<\/em><em>,<\/em> not his own popularity, would sustain him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","summary_en":"13:22 Have compassion on me: Nehemiah’s prayer implies that he felt the pressure of this unpopular decision. He knew that God’s unfailing love, not his own popularity, would sustain him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62152,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89778,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117404,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145030,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":41804,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69430,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97056,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124682,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2919,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","title_en":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","summary_en":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10448,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Papyri*, Elephantine","title_en":"Papyri*, Elephantine","content_ro":"<h3>ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI*<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic documents from the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with numerous broken papyri and fragments.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts are of considerable archaeological importance. Several centuries older than most of the Dead Sea Scrolls, they portray the social, political, and religious life of a Jewish community outside Palestine. Several points of contact are made with the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Since most of the documents are legal texts, they are an important link in the history of law in the ancient Near East. The texts also provide valuable information about the Aramaic spoken in the period and illustrate the daily life of a Persian frontier military colony.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientElephantine\">Ancient Elephantine<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was located on the southern tip of a small island in the Nile River a few kilometers north of the first cataract, opposite its twin city, ancient Syene (modern Aswan). The Bible probably includes the twin cities of Elephantine and Syene in two occurrences of the phrase “from Migdol to Syene” (Ez 29:10; 30:6), that is, from Egypt’s northern border to its southern border. The city’s name was an Aramaic version of an Egyptian name meaning “city of ivories” and was translated into Greek as <em>Elephantine.<\/em> Because of its strategic importance on Egypt’s southern boundary with Nubia, it was probably fortified as early as the third dynasty (27th century <span>BC<\/span>) and figured repeatedly in Egypt’s military history.<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was also a major commercial center. Since the first cataract was just upstream from Elephantine\/ Syene, the twin towns were the terminal ports for deep water navigation. Both towns had wharves and were fortified with garrisons to protect the trade in ivory, animal skins, spices, minerals, slaves, and food. Also a religious center, Elephantine was the temple city of Khnum, the Egyptian god of the cataract region, who presided over the flood cycles of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DiscoveryofthePapyri\">Discovery of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine came into archaeological prominence with the discoveries of the papyri. The discoveries were made in three stages. The first group to be published (in 1906) had been gathered by purchases from antiquities dealers and was housed in the Cairo Museum. That first publication stimulated German and French excavations at Elephantine in the hope of discovering more papyri. The Berlin Museum was rewarded for its efforts with a second group of papyri, published in 1911. Ironically, a group of papyri discovered in the late 19th century was the last to be studied and published. American scholar C. E. Wilbour purchased papyri in 1893 from some Arab women at Aswan. In storage until Wilbour’s daughter bequeathed them to the Brooklyn Museum, they were finally published in 1953. Since 1912, other excavations have been mounted by the pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome and the Egyptian government, but no further papyri were found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishColony\">Jewish Colony<\/p>\n<p>At the time the papyri were written, the Jews were already well established in Elephantine. The legal documents among the excavated papyri give a clear picture of life in the military colony at Elephantine. In addition to the Jewish mercenaries (“men of the regiment”), Jewish civilians (“men of the town”) were also present. The soldiers were organized into military units, which also appear to have had socioeconomic functions. Though subject to military discipline, the soldiers enjoyed considerable personal freedom. They led normal family lives, engaged in all types of commerce, and bequeathed their properties to their children. Marriage at Elephantine required the consent of the bride as well as the father, and could be dissolved by either party through a public declaration that he or she “hates” the other.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews worshiped in their own temple, which was dedicated to the Hebrew God, whom they called Yahu (a variation on Yahweh). Political and religious leaders at Elephantine were in correspondence with officials in Jerusalem and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>There is no conclusive evidence regarding when the Jewish presence at Elephantine began. Jews could have entered Egypt on any of several occasions from the eighth to the early sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. One document from Elephantine claims that the Jewish temple there was built during a period of native Egyptian rule before the Persian conquest under Cambyses (reigned 529–522 <span>BC<\/span>). That would give a date for the construction of the Elephantine temple by the mid-sixth century at the latest.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElephantineJudaism\">Elephantine Judaism<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the law of a single sanctuary (Dt 12:1-11), and in spite of the recent reforms of kings Hezekiah and Josiah in the seventh and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> that centralized worship in Jerusalem, the Elephantine Jews seem to have felt no wrong in having a temple in Egypt. Neither the German, French, Italian, nor Egyptian excavations located the Jewish temple, but the documents record that the temple was oriented toward Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews may have recognized Jerusalem’s primacy in religious affairs. When the temple at Elephantine was destroyed by priests of the Khnum temple in 410 <span>BC<\/span>, an appeal was sent to Johanan the high priest (cf. Neh 12:22; 13:28) and Bagoas the governor of Judah, seeking their permission and influence for its restoration. The appeal produced no response, perhaps because of the Jerusalem leadership’s disapproval of the temple in Egypt. A second appeal, sent three years later to Bagoas, governor of Judah, and to Delaiah and Shelemiah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria, produced an oral reply, recorded in a memorandum. The reply ordered the temple’s rebuilding and the resumption of meal and incense offerings. Permission to reinstitute the burnt offering, however, was not given, perhaps as a concession to Egyptian or Persian religious convictions. A deed for a piece of property, dated 402 <span>BC<\/span>, mentions the temple of Yahu, implying that it was in fact rebuilt.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews probably brought with them to Egypt the popular religion that was so strongly denounced by the prophets before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. God was central in their faith, but they also worshiped other gods, even if only in a subsidiary fashion. Evidence of departure from orthodox worship of God comes from a list of offerings that mentions two Aramean deities, Eshembethel and Anathbethel. Oaths at Elephantine were sworn almost exclusively in the name of Yahu, but they were also sworn occasionally in the names of an Egyptian goddess, Sati, and another Aramean deity, Herembethel. Salutations in letters invoked the blessings of a variety of deities. Moreover, intermarriage with surrounding peoples, forbidden in the OT because it would lead to religious apostasy (Ex 34:11-16; Dt 7:1-5), had become a common practice at Elephantine. It was a contemporary problem in Israel as well under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1–10:44; Neh 13:23-28). Children of mixed marriages in Elephantine often had Egyptian names.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the archives also show that the Elephantine Jews continued to observe the Jewish feasts. An order from King Darius II in 419 <span>BC<\/span> commanded the Jews at Elephantine to observe the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The text, broken immediately before this reference, presumably also contained instructions to observe the Passover. Four ostraca (potsherds) also refer to the Sabbath but provide few clues regarding Sabbath observance at Elephantine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageofthePapyri\">Language of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Except for slight differences, the Aramaic of the Elephantine papyri is the same as biblical Aramaic. Both are a part of a dialect known as Imperial Aramaic, the international and commercial language of the Persian Empire. The personal names continued to be Hebrew, but there is no direct evidence that Hebrew was used by the community. Aramaic was the daily language, and there is no suggestion of controversy over whether or not Hebrew should be used in Jewish homes, as was the case with Nehemiah in Jerusalem (Neh 13:23-25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI*<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic documents from the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with numerous broken papyri and fragments.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts are of considerable archaeological importance. Several centuries older than most of the Dead Sea Scrolls, they portray the social, political, and religious life of a Jewish community outside Palestine. Several points of contact are made with the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Since most of the documents are legal texts, they are an important link in the history of law in the ancient Near East. The texts also provide valuable information about the Aramaic spoken in the period and illustrate the daily life of a Persian frontier military colony.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientElephantine\">Ancient Elephantine<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was located on the southern tip of a small island in the Nile River a few kilometers north of the first cataract, opposite its twin city, ancient Syene (modern Aswan). The Bible probably includes the twin cities of Elephantine and Syene in two occurrences of the phrase “from Migdol to Syene” (Ez 29:10; 30:6), that is, from Egypt’s northern border to its southern border. The city’s name was an Aramaic version of an Egyptian name meaning “city of ivories” and was translated into Greek as <em>Elephantine.<\/em> Because of its strategic importance on Egypt’s southern boundary with Nubia, it was probably fortified as early as the third dynasty (27th century <span>BC<\/span>) and figured repeatedly in Egypt’s military history.<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was also a major commercial center. Since the first cataract was just upstream from Elephantine\/ Syene, the twin towns were the terminal ports for deep water navigation. Both towns had wharves and were fortified with garrisons to protect the trade in ivory, animal skins, spices, minerals, slaves, and food. Also a religious center, Elephantine was the temple city of Khnum, the Egyptian god of the cataract region, who presided over the flood cycles of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DiscoveryofthePapyri\">Discovery of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine came into archaeological prominence with the discoveries of the papyri. The discoveries were made in three stages. The first group to be published (in 1906) had been gathered by purchases from antiquities dealers and was housed in the Cairo Museum. That first publication stimulated German and French excavations at Elephantine in the hope of discovering more papyri. The Berlin Museum was rewarded for its efforts with a second group of papyri, published in 1911. Ironically, a group of papyri discovered in the late 19th century was the last to be studied and published. American scholar C. E. Wilbour purchased papyri in 1893 from some Arab women at Aswan. In storage until Wilbour’s daughter bequeathed them to the Brooklyn Museum, they were finally published in 1953. Since 1912, other excavations have been mounted by the pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome and the Egyptian government, but no further papyri were found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishColony\">Jewish Colony<\/p>\n<p>At the time the papyri were written, the Jews were already well established in Elephantine. The legal documents among the excavated papyri give a clear picture of life in the military colony at Elephantine. In addition to the Jewish mercenaries (“men of the regiment”), Jewish civilians (“men of the town”) were also present. The soldiers were organized into military units, which also appear to have had socioeconomic functions. Though subject to military discipline, the soldiers enjoyed considerable personal freedom. They led normal family lives, engaged in all types of commerce, and bequeathed their properties to their children. Marriage at Elephantine required the consent of the bride as well as the father, and could be dissolved by either party through a public declaration that he or she “hates” the other.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews worshiped in their own temple, which was dedicated to the Hebrew God, whom they called Yahu (a variation on Yahweh). Political and religious leaders at Elephantine were in correspondence with officials in Jerusalem and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>There is no conclusive evidence regarding when the Jewish presence at Elephantine began. Jews could have entered Egypt on any of several occasions from the eighth to the early sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. One document from Elephantine claims that the Jewish temple there was built during a period of native Egyptian rule before the Persian conquest under Cambyses (reigned 529–522 <span>BC<\/span>). That would give a date for the construction of the Elephantine temple by the mid-sixth century at the latest.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElephantineJudaism\">Elephantine Judaism<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the law of a single sanctuary (Dt 12:1-11), and in spite of the recent reforms of kings Hezekiah and Josiah in the seventh and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> that centralized worship in Jerusalem, the Elephantine Jews seem to have felt no wrong in having a temple in Egypt. Neither the German, French, Italian, nor Egyptian excavations located the Jewish temple, but the documents record that the temple was oriented toward Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews may have recognized Jerusalem’s primacy in religious affairs. When the temple at Elephantine was destroyed by priests of the Khnum temple in 410 <span>BC<\/span>, an appeal was sent to Johanan the high priest (cf. Neh 12:22; 13:28) and Bagoas the governor of Judah, seeking their permission and influence for its restoration. The appeal produced no response, perhaps because of the Jerusalem leadership’s disapproval of the temple in Egypt. A second appeal, sent three years later to Bagoas, governor of Judah, and to Delaiah and Shelemiah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria, produced an oral reply, recorded in a memorandum. The reply ordered the temple’s rebuilding and the resumption of meal and incense offerings. Permission to reinstitute the burnt offering, however, was not given, perhaps as a concession to Egyptian or Persian religious convictions. A deed for a piece of property, dated 402 <span>BC<\/span>, mentions the temple of Yahu, implying that it was in fact rebuilt.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews probably brought with them to Egypt the popular religion that was so strongly denounced by the prophets before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. God was central in their faith, but they also worshiped other gods, even if only in a subsidiary fashion. Evidence of departure from orthodox worship of God comes from a list of offerings that mentions two Aramean deities, Eshembethel and Anathbethel. Oaths at Elephantine were sworn almost exclusively in the name of Yahu, but they were also sworn occasionally in the names of an Egyptian goddess, Sati, and another Aramean deity, Herembethel. Salutations in letters invoked the blessings of a variety of deities. Moreover, intermarriage with surrounding peoples, forbidden in the OT because it would lead to religious apostasy (Ex 34:11-16; Dt 7:1-5), had become a common practice at Elephantine. It was a contemporary problem in Israel as well under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1–10:44; Neh 13:23-28). Children of mixed marriages in Elephantine often had Egyptian names.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the archives also show that the Elephantine Jews continued to observe the Jewish feasts. An order from King Darius II in 419 <span>BC<\/span> commanded the Jews at Elephantine to observe the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The text, broken immediately before this reference, presumably also contained instructions to observe the Passover. Four ostraca (potsherds) also refer to the Sabbath but provide few clues regarding Sabbath observance at Elephantine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageofthePapyri\">Language of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Except for slight differences, the Aramaic of the Elephantine papyri is the same as biblical Aramaic. Both are a part of a dialect known as Imperial Aramaic, the international and commercial language of the Persian Empire. The personal names continued to be Hebrew, but there is no direct evidence that Hebrew was used by the community. Aramaic was the daily language, and there is no suggestion of controversy over whether or not Hebrew should be used in Jewish homes, as was the case with Nehemiah in Jerusalem (Neh 13:23-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI* Aramaic documents from the fifth century BC discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with nume...","summary_en":"ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI* Aramaic documents from the fifth century BC discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with nume...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13401,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24052,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Malachi","title_en":"Book of Malachi","content_ro":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MALACHI, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Yet it would be most unusual for the Jews to preserve a prophetic book without explicitly attaching to it the name of the author. All of the other major and minor prophets—including Obadiah—are named after a particular prophet. Moreover, “messenger of the Lord” would be a most appropriate name for a prophet (cf. 2 Chr 36:15-16; Hg 1:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>During the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, the struggling Jewish community in Judah was greatly assisted by the return of Ezra and Nehemiah. In 458 <span>BC<\/span> Ezra was encouraged by King Artaxerxes of Persia to lead a group of exiles back to Jerusalem and to institute religious reform. About 13 years later, in 445 <span>BC<\/span>, a high-ranking government official named Nehemiah was allowed to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city walls, a task he accomplished in 52 days (Neh 6:15). As governor, Nehemiah led the people in a financial reform that provided for the poor and encouraged tithing to support the priests and Levites (5:2-13; 10:35-39). Like Ezra, Nehemiah urged the people to keep the Sabbath and avoid intermarrying with pagan neighbors. After a 12-year term, Nehemiah returned to Persia and the spiritual condition of Judah deteriorated. Perhaps discouraged by their lack of political power, tithing became sporadic, the Sabbath was not kept, intermarriage was common, and even the priests could not be trusted. When Nehemiah came back to Jerusalem sometime later, he had to take firm action to straighten out the situation (13:6-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Since Malachi had to deal with the same sins mentioned in Nehemiah 13 (see Mal 1:6-14; 2:14-16; 3:8-11), it is likely that the prophet ministered either during Nehemiah’s second term as governor or in the years just before his return. The reference to “the governor” in Malachi 1:8 implies that someone other than Nehemiah was in office, so it may be best to place Malachi just after 433 <span>BC<\/span>, the year Nehemiah had returned to Persia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>Malachi was written to shake the people of Judah from their spiritual lethargy and to warn them that judgment was coming unless they repented. The people doubted God’s love (1:2) and justice (2:17) and did not take his commands seriously (1:6; 3:14-18). Yet God was “a great King” (1:14) with a great name that was to be feared even beyond the border of Israel (vv 5, 11). Malachi repeatedly urged both the priests and the people to revere God and give him the honor he deserved. God was Israel’s Father and Creator (2:10), but the nation showed contempt for his name (1:6; 3:5). In response to this contempt, God would send his messenger to announce the Day of the Lord (3:1). John the Baptist did call the nation to repentance, and Christ came to cleanse the temple (Jn 2:14-15) and to establish the covenant (Mal 3:1-2). Most of the work of refining and purifying will take place at the Second Coming, when Christ returns to purify his people (cf. vv 2-4) and judge the wicked (4:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Great Love for Israel (1:1-5)<\/h5>\n<p>To introduce the book, Malachi presents a contrast between God’s love for Israel and his hatred for Edom. Yet the assertion of God’s love is greeted with a strange question: “How have you loved us?” God loved Israel by entering into a covenant with the nation at Mt Sinai, just after he had freed them from the prison of Egypt. He had chosen them as his special people (cf. Gn 12:1-3; Ex 19:5-6), whereas the descendants of Esau were not chosen (cf. Rom 9:10-13). Both Israel and Edom endured invasion and destruction, but only Israel was restored and rebuilt after the exile. The people of Edom were driven from their homeland by the Nabateans between 550 and 400 <span>BC<\/span>, and they never regained their territory. Through the judgment of Edom, God demonstrated that he is the great Ruler over the nations (Mal 1:5) and that he will not forget Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Unacceptable Sacrifices of the Priests (1:6-14)<\/h5>\n<p>Although God deserved the honor and reverence of the Israelites, both the people and the priests openly disdained his laws and regulations. Strangely, it was the priests who led the way into disobedience. Sacrifices and offerings were supposed to atone for sin, but the animals offered by the priests only served to pollute or defile the altar (1:7, 12). According to Leviticus, animals with defects were unacceptable as sacrifices, but Malachi mentions that the priests were offering to the Lord animals that were stolen and mutilated, crippled and sick (v 13; cf. v 8). To emphasize their contempt, the Lord challenged the priests to bring comparable presents to the governor. Would they dare to insult him in this fashion and face sure rejection? Rather than having the priests continue to bring unfit sacrifices to the altar, the Lord asked them to close the temple doors entirely (v 10). Going through the motions never pleased God, either in ancient times (cf. Is 1:12-13) or modern. By calling the altar and its sacrifices “contemptible” (Mal 1:7, 12), the priests were no better than the wicked sons of Eli, whose disregard of the rules for sacrifices sent them to a premature death (cf. 1 Sm 2:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In sharp contrast to the attitude of the priests stands the emphasis upon God’s greatness in Malachi 1:11 and 14. God is more powerful than the gods of other nations, and even if Israel’s priests and people dishonor the Lord, eventually pure offerings will be brought to God by believing Gentiles. Perhaps these offerings refer to prayer and praise (cf. Ps 19:14; Heb 13:15; Rv 5:8), but others interpret the reference more literally (cf. Is 56:7; 60:7). Peter may be alluding to this verse in connection with the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:35).<\/p>\n<h5>The Punishment of the Priests (2:1-9)<\/h5>\n<p>One of the functions of the priests was to pronounce blessings upon the people in the name of God, but their disgraceful behavior turned the blessings into curses (Mal 2:2). Because of the priests’ sinfulness and the poor condition of the animals, their sacrifices were also worthless, and the entrails of the animals will be spread on their faces as a sign that God holds them in contempt. The disgrace heaped upon the priests differs sharply from the honor enjoyed by Aaron and his descendants. Malachi refers to a covenant of life and peace (v 5) made with Levi and more particularly with Aaron’s grandson Phinehas, who courageously took action against the Jews involved in idolatry and immorality (Nm 25:10-13). In those days the priests revered the Lord and turned many from sin (Mal 2:6).<\/p>\n<p>Another responsibility of the priests was to teach the nation the law handed down by Moses (cf. Lv 10:11). Like prophets, they were messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:7) who were supposed to walk close to the Lord, but now the priests disregarded the law and were dishonest in handing down judicial decisions (Mal 2:9; cf. Lv 19:15).<\/p>\n<h5>The Unfaithfulness of the People (2:10-16)<\/h5>\n<p>In light of the attitude of the priests, it is not surprising to discover that the people at large were unfaithful to the Lord. God had formed Israel to be his special people, but the people had broken faith with him. A major factor in their unfaithfulness was intermarriage with foreigners, a sin mentioned in Ezra 9:1-2 and Nehemiah 13:23-29. By marrying pagan women, the men of Israel invariably began to worship pagan gods and turn from the Lord. When such intermarriage occurred, it sometimes followed the divorce of an Israelite wife. In Malachi 2:14-15 God underscores the sacred commitment that he himself witnesses when two people marry. If that marriage covenant is shattered by divorce, God is deeply displeased. And it is even more tragic if divorce became an excuse to marry a more attractive or appealing foreigner.<\/p>\n<h5>The Coming of the Messenger of the Covenant (2:17–3:5)<\/h5>\n<p>The sins of the priests and the people did not go unnoticed, even though the nation doubted that God would take action (2:17). But the third chapter opens with the announcement that the messenger of the covenant will indeed come to his temple. His way will be prepared by another messenger—a prophecy of John the Baptist, who prepared the way for the ministry of Christ (cf. Mt 11:10; Mk 1:2-3). When Christ came, he revealed his anger when he cleansed the temple (cf. Jn 2:13-17) and denounced the scribes and Pharisees (cf. 9:39), but most of his purifying and refining work awaits the Second Coming. Someday the priests and Levites will bring acceptable sacrifices, as they did in the days of Moses and Phinehas (cf. Mal 3:3-4 and 2:4-5). Verse 5 of chapter 3 broadens the scope of the judgment to include the whole nation, as sorcerers, adulterers, and those who oppress the poor are condemned.<\/p>\n<h5>The Benefits of Faithful Tithing (3:6-12)<\/h5>\n<p>Another specific weakness of postexilic Judah was the failure of the people to bring their tithes to the Lord. Encouraged by Nehemiah, the nation promised to tithe faithfully (cf. Neh 10:37-39), but apparently their good intentions were short-lived (cf. 13:10-11). According to Malachi 3:8-9, the tithes of the nation were so dismal that the people were, in effect, robbing God and were therefore under a curse. In verses 10-12 Malachi challenges the nation to bring their tithes; then God would pour out his blessing upon them. Just as the opening of the “windows in heaven” meant the end of a famine in 2 Kings 7:2, 19, so God promises that their crops will be so abundant that they will run out of storage space. The hope of “blessing” in Malachi 3:10 and 12 provides welcome relief from the curses mentioned in 1:14, 2:2, 3:9, and 4:6.<\/p>\n<h5>The Day of the Lord (3:13–4:6)<\/h5>\n<p>Faced with the challenge of Malachi 3:10-12, the people of Israel responded in two different ways. One group denied that serving God brought any benefit (3:13-15), while another segment of the nation bowed low before him with deep reverence (vv 16-18). The unbelievers argued that obeying the Lord was useless and that arrogant and evil people were the ones who prospered. In response to their charge, Malachi noted that God would remember who the righteous were in the Day of Judgment. Although all of Israel was included in the promise made to Abraham, only those who genuinely believed would be God’s treasured possession (3:17; cf. Ex 19:5), with their names written in the Book of Life (cf. Mal 3:16). As for the arrogant and evildoers, the Day of the Lord will consume them and they will have no survivors (4:1). Those who revere the Lord will enjoy spiritual and physical health under the blessing and protection of God, who is called the “sun of righteousness” (v 2). Like calves just released from confinement, the righteous will trample down the wicked and triumph over them (v 3).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the judgment associated with the Day of the Lord, Malachi urged the people to repent. To do this they needed to heed the law of Moses and take seriously the decrees and commands given at Mt Sinai (4:4; cf. 3:7). Just as Elijah called on Israel to turn back to God, so a new “Elijah” will preach repentance to a rebellious nation. When John the Baptist prepared the way for Christ (cf. Mal 3:1), he ministered “in the spirit and power of Elijah” and begged the Jews to turn from their sin and humble themselves before God (Lk 1:17). If they refused to listen, the nation faced the prospect of total destruction, the curse placed upon the people of Canaan (cf. Jos 6:17-19) and upon the nation of Edom, whose collapse was described in Malachi 1:2-5.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","summary_en":"MALACHI, Book of Last prophetic book of the Jewish canon; last book of the Old Testament. Preview • Author • Background • Date • Purpose and Theology • Content Author The name Malachi means “my messenger” or “messenger of the Lord.” Since the word appears in 3:1, some scholars think that it is not a proper name at all and does not provide the name of the author of the book. According to one ancient tradition, the “messenger” was Ezra, the priest responsible for the books of Ezra and Nehemiah....","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26107,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage*, Mixed","title_en":"Marriage*, Mixed","content_ro":"<h3>MIXED MARRIAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4; Neh 13:23-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIXED MARRIAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4; Neh 13:23-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIXED MARRIAGE* Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4;...","summary_en":"MIXED MARRIAGE* Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4;...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27214,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27226,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30948,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48273,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","summary_en":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","summary_en":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","summary_en":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:23-24<\/strong> The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (<em>the language of Judah<\/em>) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","summary_en":"13:23-24 The earlier marriage reforms (9:2; 10:28; Ezra 9:1–10:44) had not lasted. The children’s inability to speak Hebrew (the language of Judah) was disastrous because they could not read or understand the Scriptures.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62150,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62202,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89776,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89828,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117402,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117454,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145028,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145080,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":2509,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aramaic","title_en":"Aramaic","content_ro":"<h3>ARAMAIC<\/h3>\n<p>One of the three original languages of the Bible, found in sections of the book of Daniel (2:4b–7:28) and Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26). Aramaic phrases and expressions also appear in Genesis (31:47), Jeremiah (10:11), and the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentUse\">Old Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic is linguistically very close to Hebrew and similar in structure. Aramaic texts in the Bible are written in the same script as Hebrew. In contrast to Hebrew, Aramaic uses a larger vocabulary, including many loan words, and a greater variety of connectives. It also contains an elaborate system of tenses, developed through the use of participles with pronouns or with various forms of the verb “to be.” Although Aramaic is less euphonious and poetical than Hebrew, it is probably superior as a vehicle of exact expression.<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic has perhaps the longest continuous living history of any language known. It was used during the Bible’s patriarchal period and is still spoken by a few people today. Aramaic and its cognate, Syriac, evolved into many dialects in different places and periods. Characterized by simplicity, clarity, and precision, it adapted easily to the various needs of everyday life. It could serve equally well as a language for scholars, pupils, lawyers, or merchants. Some have described it as the Semitic equivalent of English.<\/p>\n<p>The origin of Aramaic is unknown, but it seems to have been closely related to Amorite and possibly to other ancient northwest Semitic dialects barely known to scholars. Although an Aramean kingdom as such never really existed, various Aramean “states” developed into influential centers. A few short Aramean inscriptions from that era (10th to 8th centuries <span>BC<\/span>) have been found and studied.<\/p>\n<p>By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, King Hezekiah’s representatives requested the spokesmen of the Assyrian king Sennacherib to “speak to your servants in Aramaic, since we understand it. Don’t speak to us in Hebrew in the hearing of the people on the wall” (2 Kgs 18:26, <span>niv<\/span>). By the Persian period, Aramaic had become the language of international trade. During their captivity, the Jews probably adopted it for convenience—certainly in commerce—while Hebrew became confined to the learned and to religious leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Gradually, especially after the Babylonian exile, Aramaic influence pervaded the land of Palestine. Nehemiah complained that children from mixed marriages were unable to speak Hebrew (Neh 13:24). The Jews seem to have continued using Aramaic widely during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods. Eventually the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Aramaic paraphrases, called Targums, some of which have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentUse\">New Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>In popular thought, Aramaic was the common language of Palestine during the time of Jesus. Yet that is by no means certain and probably is an oversimplification of the linguistic situation of that time. Names used in the NT reflect Aramaic (Bartholomew, Bar-Jonah, Barnabas), Greek (Andrew, Philip), and Latin (Mark), as well as Hebrew. There is no question that Aramaic was widely used, as were Greek and Hebrew. Latin was probably limited to military and governmental circles. Mishnaic Hebrew, a common kind of everyday Hebrew dialect, was also used in Jesus’ day; Mishnaic Hebrew documents have been discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>What was the “Hebrew” referred to in certain NT passages (Jn 5:2; 19:13, 17, 20; 20:16; Rv 9:11; 16:16)? The languages used for the inscription put on Jesus’ cross were “Hebrew, Latin, and Greek” (Jn 19:19-20). Later, the apostle Paul was said to speak “Hebrew” (Acts 22:2; 26:14). The exact dialect he spoke may be debated, but as a Pharisee he was undoubtedly able to read the Hebrew of the OT. The Greek word for “Hebrew” is sometimes translated “Aramaic” and may be a general term for Semitic, or for a blend of Hebrew-Aramaic (as Yiddish is German-Hebrew). At any rate, Aramaic served as a transition from Hebrew to Greek as the language spoken by Jews in Jesus’ day. In that sense Aramaic connects OT Hebrew with NT Greek.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARAMAIC<\/h3>\n<p>One of the three original languages of the Bible, found in sections of the book of Daniel (2:4b–7:28) and Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26). Aramaic phrases and expressions also appear in Genesis (31:47), Jeremiah (10:11), and the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentUse\">Old Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic is linguistically very close to Hebrew and similar in structure. Aramaic texts in the Bible are written in the same script as Hebrew. In contrast to Hebrew, Aramaic uses a larger vocabulary, including many loan words, and a greater variety of connectives. It also contains an elaborate system of tenses, developed through the use of participles with pronouns or with various forms of the verb “to be.” Although Aramaic is less euphonious and poetical than Hebrew, it is probably superior as a vehicle of exact expression.<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic has perhaps the longest continuous living history of any language known. It was used during the Bible’s patriarchal period and is still spoken by a few people today. Aramaic and its cognate, Syriac, evolved into many dialects in different places and periods. Characterized by simplicity, clarity, and precision, it adapted easily to the various needs of everyday life. It could serve equally well as a language for scholars, pupils, lawyers, or merchants. Some have described it as the Semitic equivalent of English.<\/p>\n<p>The origin of Aramaic is unknown, but it seems to have been closely related to Amorite and possibly to other ancient northwest Semitic dialects barely known to scholars. Although an Aramean kingdom as such never really existed, various Aramean “states” developed into influential centers. A few short Aramean inscriptions from that era (10th to 8th centuries <span>BC<\/span>) have been found and studied.<\/p>\n<p>By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, King Hezekiah’s representatives requested the spokesmen of the Assyrian king Sennacherib to “speak to your servants in Aramaic, since we understand it. Don’t speak to us in Hebrew in the hearing of the people on the wall” (2 Kgs 18:26, <span>niv<\/span>). By the Persian period, Aramaic had become the language of international trade. During their captivity, the Jews probably adopted it for convenience—certainly in commerce—while Hebrew became confined to the learned and to religious leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Gradually, especially after the Babylonian exile, Aramaic influence pervaded the land of Palestine. Nehemiah complained that children from mixed marriages were unable to speak Hebrew (Neh 13:24). The Jews seem to have continued using Aramaic widely during the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods. Eventually the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Aramaic paraphrases, called Targums, some of which have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentUse\">New Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>In popular thought, Aramaic was the common language of Palestine during the time of Jesus. Yet that is by no means certain and probably is an oversimplification of the linguistic situation of that time. Names used in the NT reflect Aramaic (Bartholomew, Bar-Jonah, Barnabas), Greek (Andrew, Philip), and Latin (Mark), as well as Hebrew. There is no question that Aramaic was widely used, as were Greek and Hebrew. Latin was probably limited to military and governmental circles. Mishnaic Hebrew, a common kind of everyday Hebrew dialect, was also used in Jesus’ day; Mishnaic Hebrew documents have been discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>What was the “Hebrew” referred to in certain NT passages (Jn 5:2; 19:13, 17, 20; 20:16; Rv 9:11; 16:16)? The languages used for the inscription put on Jesus’ cross were “Hebrew, Latin, and Greek” (Jn 19:19-20). Later, the apostle Paul was said to speak “Hebrew” (Acts 22:2; 26:14). The exact dialect he spoke may be debated, but as a Pharisee he was undoubtedly able to read the Hebrew of the OT. The Greek word for “Hebrew” is sometimes translated “Aramaic” and may be a general term for Semitic, or for a blend of Hebrew-Aramaic (as Yiddish is German-Hebrew). At any rate, Aramaic served as a transition from Hebrew to Greek as the language spoken by Jews in Jesus’ day. In that sense Aramaic connects OT Hebrew with NT Greek.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARAMAIC One of the three original languages of the Bible, found in sections of the book of Daniel (2:4b–7:28) and Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26). Aramaic phrases and expressions also appear in Genesis (31:47), Jeremiah (10:11), and the NT. Old Testament Use Aramaic is linguistically very close to Hebrew and similar in structure. Aramaic texts in the Bible are written in the same script as Hebrew. In contrast to Hebrew, Aramaic uses a larger vocabulary, including many loan words, and a greater varie...","summary_en":"ARAMAIC One of the three original languages of the Bible, found in sections of the book of Daniel (2:4b–7:28) and Ezra (4:8–6:18; 7:12-26). Aramaic phrases and expressions also appear in Genesis (31:47), Jeremiah (10:11), and the NT. Old Testament Use Aramaic is linguistically very close to Hebrew and similar in structure. Aramaic texts in the Bible are written in the same script as Hebrew. In contrast to Hebrew, Aramaic uses a larger vocabulary, including many loan words, and a greater varie...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15862,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hebrew Language","title_en":"Hebrew Language","content_ro":"<h3>HEBREW LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>• Character<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<p>• Style<\/p>\n<p>• Legacy<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>In the Middle Ages a common view was that Hebrew was the primitive language of humankind. Even in colonial America, Hebrew was still referred to as “the mother of all languages.” Linguistic scholarship has now made this theory untenable.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is actually one of several Canaanite dialects that included Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite. Other Canaanite dialects (for example, Ammonite) existed but have left insufficient inscriptions for scholarly investigation. Such dialects were already present in the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Until about 1974, the oldest witnesses to Canaanite language were found in the Ugarit and Amarna records dating from the 14th and 15th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. A few Canaanite words and expressions appeared in earlier Egyptian records, but the origin of Canaanite has been uncertain. Between 1974 and 1976, however, nearly 17,000 tablets were dug up at Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) in northern Syria, written in a previously unknown Semitic dialect. Because they possibly date back to 2400 <span>BC<\/span> (perhaps even earlier), many scholars think that language may be the “Old Canaanite” that gave rise to Hebrew. By 1977, when another 1,000 tablets were unearthed, only about 100 inscriptions from Ebla had been reported on. Languages change over a long period of time. For example, the English used in the time of Alfred the Great (ninth century <span>AD<\/span>) seems almost like a foreign language to contemporary English speakers. Although Hebrew was no exception to the general principle, like other Semitic languages it remained remarkably stable over many centuries. Poems such as the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5) tended to preserve the language’s oldest form. Changes that took place later in the long history of the language are shown in the presence of archaic words (often preserved in poetic language) and a general difference in style. For example, the book of Job reflects a more archaic style than the book of Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Various Hebrew dialects apparently existed side by side in OT times, as reflected in the episode involving the pronunciation of the Hebrew word “shibboleth\/sibboleth” (Jgs 12:4-6). It seems that the Israelites east of the Jordan pronounced the initial letter with a strong “sh” sound, while those in Canaan gave it the simple “s” sound. Scholars have also identified features of Hebrew that could be described as reflecting the northern or southern parts of the country.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyofLanguages\">Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew belongs to the Semitic family of languages; these languages were used from the Mediterranean Sea to the mountains east of the Euphrates River valley, and from Armenia (Turkey) in the north to the southern extremity of the Arabian peninsula. Semitic languages are classified as Southern (Arabic and Ethiopic), Eastern (Akkadian), and Northwestern (Aramaic, Syriac, and Canaanite—Hebrew, Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, like the other early Semitic languages, concentrates on observation more than reflection. That is, things are generally observed according to their appearance as phenomena, not analyzed as to their inward being or essence. Effects are observed but not traced through a series of causes.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew’s vividness, conciseness, and simplicity make the language difficult to translate fully. It is amazingly concise and direct. For example, Psalm 23 contains 55 words; most translations require about twice that many to translate it. The first two lines, with slashes separating the individual Hebrew words in the original, read:<\/p>\n<p>The Lord\/[is] my shepherd\/<\/p>\n<p>I shall want\/not<\/p>\n<p>Thus eight English words are required to translate four Hebrew words.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew does not use separate, distinct expressions for every shade of thought. Someone has said, “The Semites have been the quarries whose great rough blocks the Greeks have trimmed, polished, and fitted together. The former gave religion; the latter philosophy.”<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is a pictorial language in which the past is not merely described but verbally painted. Not just a landscape is presented but a moving panorama. The course of events is reenacted in the mind’s sight. (Note the frequent use of “behold,” a Hebraism carried over to the NT.) Such common Hebraic expressions as “he arose and went,” “he opened his lips and spoke,” “he lifted up his eyes and saw,” and “he lifted up his voice and wept” illustrate the pictorial strength of the language.<\/p>\n<p>Many profound theological expressions of the OT are tightly bound up with Hebrew language and grammar. Even the most sacred name of God himself, “the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Yahweh), is directly related to the Hebrew verb “to be” (or perhaps “to cause to be”). Many other names of persons and places in the OT can best be understood only with a working knowledge of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewScriptandGrammar\">Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<h5>Alphabet and Script<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonants; signs for vowels were devised and added late in the language’s history. The origin of the alphabet is unknown. The oldest examples of a Canaanite alphabet were preserved in the Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The old style of writing the letters is called the Phoenician or paleo-Hebrew script. It is the predecessor of the Greek and other Western alphabets. The script used in modern Hebrew Bibles (Aramaic or square script) came into vogue after Israel’s exile into Babylon (sixth century <span>BC<\/span>). The older style was still used sporadically in the early Christian era on coins and for writing God’s name (as in the Dead Sea Scrolls). Hebrew has always been written right to left.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Consonants<\/h5>\n<p>The Canaanite alphabet of the Phoenician and Moabite languages had 22 consonants. The older Canaanite language reflected in Ugaritic had more consonants. Arabic also preserves some Old Canaanite consonants found in Ugaritic but missing in Hebrew.<\/p>\n<h5>Vowels<\/h5>\n<p>In the original consonantal Hebrew script, vowels were simply understood by the writer or reader. On the basis of tradition and context, the reader would supply whatever vowels were needed, much as is done in English abbreviations (“bldg.” for “building”; “blvd.” for “boulevard”). After the collapse of the nation in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the dispersion of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem led to Hebrew’s becoming a “dead language,” no longer widely spoken. Loss of traditional pronunciation and understanding then became more of a possibility, so Jewish scribes felt a need for permanently establishing the vowel sounds.<\/p>\n<p>First, vowel letters called “mothers of reading” <em>(matres lectionis)<\/em> were added. These were consonants used especially to indicate long vowels. These were added before the Christian era, as the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal.<\/p>\n<p>Later (about the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>), the scribes called Masoretes added vowel signs to indicate short vowels. At least three different systems of vowel signs were employed at different times and places. The text used today represents the system devised by Masoretic scribes who worked in the city of Tiberias. The vowels, each of which may be long or short, are indicated by dots or dashes placed above or below the consonants. Certain combinations of dots and dashes represent very short vowel sounds, or “half-vowels.”<\/p>\n<h5>Linkage<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew joins together many words that in Western languages would be written separately. Some prepositions (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">be<\/span>-, “in”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ke<\/span>-, “like”) are prefixed directly to the noun or verb that they introduce, as are the definite article <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ha<\/span>-, “the” and the conjunction <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wa<\/span>-, “and.” Suffixes are used for pronouns, either in the possessive or accusative relationship. The same word may simultaneously have both a prefix and a suffix.<\/p>\n<h5>Nouns<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew has no neuter gender; everything is masculine or feminine. Inanimate objects may be either masculine or feminine, depending on the formation or character of the word. Usually, abstract ideas or words indicating a group are feminine. Nouns are derived from roots and are formed in various ways, either by vowel modification or by adding prefixes or suffixes to the root. Contrary to Greek and many Western languages, compound nouns are not characteristic of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew plural is formed by adding -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">im<\/span> for masculine nouns <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seraphim, cherubim<\/span><em>)<\/em> and -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">oth<\/span> for feminine nouns.<\/p>\n<p>Three original case endings indicating nominative, genitive, and accusative have dropped away during the evolution of Hebrew. To compensate for the lack of case endings, Hebrew resorts to various indicators. Indirect objects are indicated by the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; direct objects by the objective sign <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’eth<\/span><em>;<\/em> the genitive relationship by putting the word before the genitive in the “construct state,” or shortened form.<\/p>\n<h5>Adjectives<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew is deficient in adjectives. “A double heart” is indicated in the original Hebrew by “a heart and a heart” (Ps 12:2), and “two differing weights” is actually “a stone and a stone” (Dt 25:13); “the whole royal family” is “the seed of the kingdom” (2 Kgs 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>Adjectives that do exist in Hebrew have no comparative or superlative forms. Relationship is indicated by the preposition “from.” “Better than you” is expressed literally in Hebrew “good from you.” “The serpent was more subtle than any other beast” is literally “the serpent was subtle from every beast” (Gn 3:1). The superlative is expressed by several different constructions. The idea “very deep” is literally “deep, deep” (Eccl 7:24); the “best song” is literally “song of songs” (compare “king of kings”); “holiest” is literally “holy, holy, holy” (Is 6:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Verbs<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew verbs are formed from a root usually consisting of three letters. From such roots, verbal forms are developed by a change of vowels or by adding prefixes or suffixes. The root consonants provide the semantic backbone of the language and give a stability of meaning not characteristic of Western languages. The vowels are quite flexible, giving Hebrew considerable elasticity.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew verb usage is not characterized by precise definition of tenses. Hebrew tenses, especially in poetry, are largely determined by context. The two tense formations are the perfect (completed action) and imperfect (incomplete action). The imperfect is ambiguous. It represents the indicative mood (present, past, future) but may also represent such moods as the imperative, optative, and jussive or cohortative. A distinctive usage of the perfect tense is the “prophetic perfect,” where the perfect form represents a future event considered so sure that it is expressed as past (e.g., see Is 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>Most Hebrew roots originally expressed some physical action or denoted some natural object. The verb “to decide” originally meant “to cut”; “to be true” originally meant “to be firmly fixed”; “to be right” meant “to be straight”; “to be honorable” meant “to be heavy.”<\/p>\n<p>Abstract terms are alien to the character of Hebrew; for example, biblical Hebrew has no specific words for “theology,” “philosophy,” or “religion.” Intellectual or theological concepts are expressed by concrete terms. The abstract idea of sin is represented by such words as “to miss the mark” or “crooked” or “rebellion” or “trespass” (“to cross over”). Mind or intellect is expressed by “heart” or “kidneys,” and emotion or compassion by “bowels” (see Is 63:15, <span>kjv<\/span>). Other concrete terms in Hebrew are “horn” for strength or vigor, “bones” for self, and “seed” for descendants. A mental quality is often depicted by the part of the body thought of as its most appropriate embodiment. Strength can be represented by “arm” or “hand,” anger by “nostril,” displeasure by “falling face,” acceptance by “shining face,” thinking by “say.”<\/p>\n<p>Some translators have attempted to represent a Hebrew word always by the same English word, but that leads to serious problems. Sometimes there is considerable disagreement on the exact shade of meaning of a Hebrew word in a given passage. A single root frequently represents a variety of meanings, depending on usage and context. The word for “bless” can also mean “curse, greet, favor, praise.” The word for “judgment” is used also for “justice, verdict, penalty, ordinance, duty, custom, manner.” The word for “strength” or “power” also means “army, virtue, worth, courage.”<\/p>\n<p>Further ambiguity arises from the fact that some Hebrew consonants stand for two different original consonants that have merged in the evolution of the language. Two words that on the surface appear to be identical may be traced back to two different roots. For an example of this phenomenon in English, compare “bass” (a fish) with “bass” (a vocalist).<\/p>\n<h5>Syntax<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew syntax is relatively uncomplicated. Few subordinating conjunctions (“if,” “when,” “because,” etc.) are used; sentences are usually coordinated by using the simple conjunction “and.” English translations of biblical texts generally try to show the logical connection between successive sentences, even though it is not always clear. In Genesis 1:2–3:1, all but three of the 56 verses begin with “and,” yet the <span>nlt<\/span> translates that conjunction variously as “then” (1:3), “so” (v 27), “so” (2:1), and “instead” (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew style is enlivened by use of direct discourse. The narrator does not simply state that “such and such a person said that . . .” (indirect discourse). Instead, the parties speak for themselves (direct discourse), creating a freshness that remains even after repeated reading.<\/p>\n<h5>Poetry<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew poetry uses a variety of rhetorical devices. Some of them—such as assonance, alliteration, and acrostics—can be appreciated only in the original Hebrew. But parallelism, the most important characteristic of Hebrew poetry, is evident even in English translation. Among the many forms of parallelism possible, four common categories exist: (1) synonymous, a repeating style in which parallel lines say the same thing in different words; (2) antithetic, a contrasting style in which contrary thoughts are expressed; (3) completive, with a completing parallel line filling out the thought of the first; (4) climactic, in which an ascending parallel line picks up something from the first line and repeats it. Numerous other forms of parallelism enrich Hebrew poetry. The possible varations of parallelism are almost endless.<\/p>\n<h5>Figures of Speech<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew abounds in expressive figures of speech based on the Hebrew people’s character and way of life. Certain odd but well-known expressions found in English literature come from the Hebrew style, like “apple of his eye” (Dt 32:10; Ps 17:8; Prv 7:2; Zec 2:8) and “skin of my teeth” (Job 19:20). Some of the more striking Hebrew modes of expression are hard to transfer into English, such as “to uncover the ear,” meaning “to disclose, reveal.” Others are more familiar, like “to stiffen the neck” for “to be stubborn, rebellious”; “to bend or incline the ear” for “to listen closely.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Legacy\">Legacy<\/p>\n<p>English and a number of other modern languages have been enriched by Hebrew. English even contains a number of Hebrew “loan words.” Some of these have had wide influence (“amen,” “hallelujah,” “jubilee”). Many Hebrew proper nouns are used in modern languages for persons and places, such as David, Jonathan\/John, Miriam\/Mary, Bethlehem (the name of several towns and cities in the United States).<\/p>\n<p>Many common Hebrew expressions have been unconsciously accepted into English figures of speech, as in “mouth of the cave” and “face of the earth.” Some figures, such as “east of Eden,” have been used as titles for books and films.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEBREW LANGUAGE<\/h3>\n<p>Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>• Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>• Character<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<p>• Style<\/p>\n<p>• Legacy<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>In the Middle Ages a common view was that Hebrew was the primitive language of humankind. Even in colonial America, Hebrew was still referred to as “the mother of all languages.” Linguistic scholarship has now made this theory untenable.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is actually one of several Canaanite dialects that included Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite. Other Canaanite dialects (for example, Ammonite) existed but have left insufficient inscriptions for scholarly investigation. Such dialects were already present in the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Until about 1974, the oldest witnesses to Canaanite language were found in the Ugarit and Amarna records dating from the 14th and 15th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. A few Canaanite words and expressions appeared in earlier Egyptian records, but the origin of Canaanite has been uncertain. Between 1974 and 1976, however, nearly 17,000 tablets were dug up at Tell Mardikh (ancient Ebla) in northern Syria, written in a previously unknown Semitic dialect. Because they possibly date back to 2400 <span>BC<\/span> (perhaps even earlier), many scholars think that language may be the “Old Canaanite” that gave rise to Hebrew. By 1977, when another 1,000 tablets were unearthed, only about 100 inscriptions from Ebla had been reported on. Languages change over a long period of time. For example, the English used in the time of Alfred the Great (ninth century <span>AD<\/span>) seems almost like a foreign language to contemporary English speakers. Although Hebrew was no exception to the general principle, like other Semitic languages it remained remarkably stable over many centuries. Poems such as the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5) tended to preserve the language’s oldest form. Changes that took place later in the long history of the language are shown in the presence of archaic words (often preserved in poetic language) and a general difference in style. For example, the book of Job reflects a more archaic style than the book of Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Various Hebrew dialects apparently existed side by side in OT times, as reflected in the episode involving the pronunciation of the Hebrew word “shibboleth\/sibboleth” (Jgs 12:4-6). It seems that the Israelites east of the Jordan pronounced the initial letter with a strong “sh” sound, while those in Canaan gave it the simple “s” sound. Scholars have also identified features of Hebrew that could be described as reflecting the northern or southern parts of the country.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FamilyofLanguages\">Family of Languages<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew belongs to the Semitic family of languages; these languages were used from the Mediterranean Sea to the mountains east of the Euphrates River valley, and from Armenia (Turkey) in the north to the southern extremity of the Arabian peninsula. Semitic languages are classified as Southern (Arabic and Ethiopic), Eastern (Akkadian), and Northwestern (Aramaic, Syriac, and Canaanite—Hebrew, Phoenician, Ugaritic, and Moabite).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, like the other early Semitic languages, concentrates on observation more than reflection. That is, things are generally observed according to their appearance as phenomena, not analyzed as to their inward being or essence. Effects are observed but not traced through a series of causes.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew’s vividness, conciseness, and simplicity make the language difficult to translate fully. It is amazingly concise and direct. For example, Psalm 23 contains 55 words; most translations require about twice that many to translate it. The first two lines, with slashes separating the individual Hebrew words in the original, read:<\/p>\n<p>The Lord\/[is] my shepherd\/<\/p>\n<p>I shall want\/not<\/p>\n<p>Thus eight English words are required to translate four Hebrew words.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew does not use separate, distinct expressions for every shade of thought. Someone has said, “The Semites have been the quarries whose great rough blocks the Greeks have trimmed, polished, and fitted together. The former gave religion; the latter philosophy.”<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew is a pictorial language in which the past is not merely described but verbally painted. Not just a landscape is presented but a moving panorama. The course of events is reenacted in the mind’s sight. (Note the frequent use of “behold,” a Hebraism carried over to the NT.) Such common Hebraic expressions as “he arose and went,” “he opened his lips and spoke,” “he lifted up his eyes and saw,” and “he lifted up his voice and wept” illustrate the pictorial strength of the language.<\/p>\n<p>Many profound theological expressions of the OT are tightly bound up with Hebrew language and grammar. Even the most sacred name of God himself, “the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Yahweh), is directly related to the Hebrew verb “to be” (or perhaps “to cause to be”). Many other names of persons and places in the OT can best be understood only with a working knowledge of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewScriptandGrammar\">Hebrew Script and Grammar<\/p>\n<h5>Alphabet and Script<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonants; signs for vowels were devised and added late in the language’s history. The origin of the alphabet is unknown. The oldest examples of a Canaanite alphabet were preserved in the Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The old style of writing the letters is called the Phoenician or paleo-Hebrew script. It is the predecessor of the Greek and other Western alphabets. The script used in modern Hebrew Bibles (Aramaic or square script) came into vogue after Israel’s exile into Babylon (sixth century <span>BC<\/span>). The older style was still used sporadically in the early Christian era on coins and for writing God’s name (as in the Dead Sea Scrolls). Hebrew has always been written right to left.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Consonants<\/h5>\n<p>The Canaanite alphabet of the Phoenician and Moabite languages had 22 consonants. The older Canaanite language reflected in Ugaritic had more consonants. Arabic also preserves some Old Canaanite consonants found in Ugaritic but missing in Hebrew.<\/p>\n<h5>Vowels<\/h5>\n<p>In the original consonantal Hebrew script, vowels were simply understood by the writer or reader. On the basis of tradition and context, the reader would supply whatever vowels were needed, much as is done in English abbreviations (“bldg.” for “building”; “blvd.” for “boulevard”). After the collapse of the nation in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the dispersion of the Jews and the destruction of Jerusalem led to Hebrew’s becoming a “dead language,” no longer widely spoken. Loss of traditional pronunciation and understanding then became more of a possibility, so Jewish scribes felt a need for permanently establishing the vowel sounds.<\/p>\n<p>First, vowel letters called “mothers of reading” <em>(matres lectionis)<\/em> were added. These were consonants used especially to indicate long vowels. These were added before the Christian era, as the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal.<\/p>\n<p>Later (about the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>), the scribes called Masoretes added vowel signs to indicate short vowels. At least three different systems of vowel signs were employed at different times and places. The text used today represents the system devised by Masoretic scribes who worked in the city of Tiberias. The vowels, each of which may be long or short, are indicated by dots or dashes placed above or below the consonants. Certain combinations of dots and dashes represent very short vowel sounds, or “half-vowels.”<\/p>\n<h5>Linkage<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew joins together many words that in Western languages would be written separately. Some prepositions (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">be<\/span>-, “in”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ke<\/span>-, “like”) are prefixed directly to the noun or verb that they introduce, as are the definite article <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ha<\/span>-, “the” and the conjunction <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">wa<\/span>-, “and.” Suffixes are used for pronouns, either in the possessive or accusative relationship. The same word may simultaneously have both a prefix and a suffix.<\/p>\n<h5>Nouns<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew has no neuter gender; everything is masculine or feminine. Inanimate objects may be either masculine or feminine, depending on the formation or character of the word. Usually, abstract ideas or words indicating a group are feminine. Nouns are derived from roots and are formed in various ways, either by vowel modification or by adding prefixes or suffixes to the root. Contrary to Greek and many Western languages, compound nouns are not characteristic of Hebrew.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew plural is formed by adding -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">im<\/span> for masculine nouns <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seraphim, cherubim<\/span><em>)<\/em> and -<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">oth<\/span> for feminine nouns.<\/p>\n<p>Three original case endings indicating nominative, genitive, and accusative have dropped away during the evolution of Hebrew. To compensate for the lack of case endings, Hebrew resorts to various indicators. Indirect objects are indicated by the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le<\/span>-, “to”; direct objects by the objective sign <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’eth<\/span><em>;<\/em> the genitive relationship by putting the word before the genitive in the “construct state,” or shortened form.<\/p>\n<h5>Adjectives<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew is deficient in adjectives. “A double heart” is indicated in the original Hebrew by “a heart and a heart” (Ps 12:2), and “two differing weights” is actually “a stone and a stone” (Dt 25:13); “the whole royal family” is “the seed of the kingdom” (2 Kgs 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>Adjectives that do exist in Hebrew have no comparative or superlative forms. Relationship is indicated by the preposition “from.” “Better than you” is expressed literally in Hebrew “good from you.” “The serpent was more subtle than any other beast” is literally “the serpent was subtle from every beast” (Gn 3:1). The superlative is expressed by several different constructions. The idea “very deep” is literally “deep, deep” (Eccl 7:24); the “best song” is literally “song of songs” (compare “king of kings”); “holiest” is literally “holy, holy, holy” (Is 6:3).<\/p>\n<h5>Verbs<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew verbs are formed from a root usually consisting of three letters. From such roots, verbal forms are developed by a change of vowels or by adding prefixes or suffixes. The root consonants provide the semantic backbone of the language and give a stability of meaning not characteristic of Western languages. The vowels are quite flexible, giving Hebrew considerable elasticity.<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew verb usage is not characterized by precise definition of tenses. Hebrew tenses, especially in poetry, are largely determined by context. The two tense formations are the perfect (completed action) and imperfect (incomplete action). The imperfect is ambiguous. It represents the indicative mood (present, past, future) but may also represent such moods as the imperative, optative, and jussive or cohortative. A distinctive usage of the perfect tense is the “prophetic perfect,” where the perfect form represents a future event considered so sure that it is expressed as past (e.g., see Is 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Style\">Style<\/p>\n<h5>Vocabulary<\/h5>\n<p>Most Hebrew roots originally expressed some physical action or denoted some natural object. The verb “to decide” originally meant “to cut”; “to be true” originally meant “to be firmly fixed”; “to be right” meant “to be straight”; “to be honorable” meant “to be heavy.”<\/p>\n<p>Abstract terms are alien to the character of Hebrew; for example, biblical Hebrew has no specific words for “theology,” “philosophy,” or “religion.” Intellectual or theological concepts are expressed by concrete terms. The abstract idea of sin is represented by such words as “to miss the mark” or “crooked” or “rebellion” or “trespass” (“to cross over”). Mind or intellect is expressed by “heart” or “kidneys,” and emotion or compassion by “bowels” (see Is 63:15, <span>kjv<\/span>). Other concrete terms in Hebrew are “horn” for strength or vigor, “bones” for self, and “seed” for descendants. A mental quality is often depicted by the part of the body thought of as its most appropriate embodiment. Strength can be represented by “arm” or “hand,” anger by “nostril,” displeasure by “falling face,” acceptance by “shining face,” thinking by “say.”<\/p>\n<p>Some translators have attempted to represent a Hebrew word always by the same English word, but that leads to serious problems. Sometimes there is considerable disagreement on the exact shade of meaning of a Hebrew word in a given passage. A single root frequently represents a variety of meanings, depending on usage and context. The word for “bless” can also mean “curse, greet, favor, praise.” The word for “judgment” is used also for “justice, verdict, penalty, ordinance, duty, custom, manner.” The word for “strength” or “power” also means “army, virtue, worth, courage.”<\/p>\n<p>Further ambiguity arises from the fact that some Hebrew consonants stand for two different original consonants that have merged in the evolution of the language. Two words that on the surface appear to be identical may be traced back to two different roots. For an example of this phenomenon in English, compare “bass” (a fish) with “bass” (a vocalist).<\/p>\n<h5>Syntax<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew syntax is relatively uncomplicated. Few subordinating conjunctions (“if,” “when,” “because,” etc.) are used; sentences are usually coordinated by using the simple conjunction “and.” English translations of biblical texts generally try to show the logical connection between successive sentences, even though it is not always clear. In Genesis 1:2–3:1, all but three of the 56 verses begin with “and,” yet the <span>nlt<\/span> translates that conjunction variously as “then” (1:3), “so” (v 27), “so” (2:1), and “instead” (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew style is enlivened by use of direct discourse. The narrator does not simply state that “such and such a person said that . . .” (indirect discourse). Instead, the parties speak for themselves (direct discourse), creating a freshness that remains even after repeated reading.<\/p>\n<h5>Poetry<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew poetry uses a variety of rhetorical devices. Some of them—such as assonance, alliteration, and acrostics—can be appreciated only in the original Hebrew. But parallelism, the most important characteristic of Hebrew poetry, is evident even in English translation. Among the many forms of parallelism possible, four common categories exist: (1) synonymous, a repeating style in which parallel lines say the same thing in different words; (2) antithetic, a contrasting style in which contrary thoughts are expressed; (3) completive, with a completing parallel line filling out the thought of the first; (4) climactic, in which an ascending parallel line picks up something from the first line and repeats it. Numerous other forms of parallelism enrich Hebrew poetry. The possible varations of parallelism are almost endless.<\/p>\n<h5>Figures of Speech<\/h5>\n<p>Hebrew abounds in expressive figures of speech based on the Hebrew people’s character and way of life. Certain odd but well-known expressions found in English literature come from the Hebrew style, like “apple of his eye” (Dt 32:10; Ps 17:8; Prv 7:2; Zec 2:8) and “skin of my teeth” (Job 19:20). Some of the more striking Hebrew modes of expression are hard to transfer into English, such as “to uncover the ear,” meaning “to disclose, reveal.” Others are more familiar, like “to stiffen the neck” for “to be stubborn, rebellious”; “to bend or incline the ear” for “to listen closely.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Legacy\">Legacy<\/p>\n<p>English and a number of other modern languages have been enriched by Hebrew. English even contains a number of Hebrew “loan words.” Some of these have had wide influence (“amen,” “hallelujah,” “jubilee”). Many Hebrew proper nouns are used in modern languages for persons and places, such as David, Jonathan\/John, Miriam\/Mary, Bethlehem (the name of several towns and cities in the United States).<\/p>\n<p>Many common Hebrew expressions have been unconsciously accepted into English figures of speech, as in “mouth of the cave” and “face of the earth.” Some figures, such as “east of Eden,” have been used as titles for books and films.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEBREW LANGUAGE Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, nlt mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24). Preview • Origin and History • Family of Languages • Character • Hebrew Script and Grammar • Style • Legacy Origin and History In the Middle Ages a common v...","summary_en":"HEBREW LANGUAGE Language of the Jewish people. The name Hebrew is not applied by the OT to its own language, although the NT does use the name that way. In the OT, “Hebrew” means the individual or people who used the language. The language itself is called “the language of Canaan” (Is 19:18, nlt mg) or “the language of Judah” (Neh 13:24). Preview • Origin and History • Family of Languages • Character • Hebrew Script and Grammar • Style • Legacy Origin and History In the Middle Ages a common v...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19773,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jew","title_en":"Jew","content_ro":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","summary_en":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":27215,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48274,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:25","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","summary_en":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:25","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","summary_en":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:25","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","summary_en":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:25","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:25<\/strong> When Nehemiah <em>called down curses on them<\/em><em>,<\/em> it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • <em>I beat some of them and pulled out their hair:<\/em> Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he <em>made them swear in the name of God<\/em> not to intermarry with pagans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","summary_en":"13:25 When Nehemiah called down curses on them, it was because the parents avoided Hebrew and did not teach their children the language of the Hebrew Bible. A curse called on God to remove his blessing on people. • I beat some of them and pulled out their hair: Apparently, some of the men did not accept Nehemiah’s rebuke at first, so he made them swear in the name of God not to intermarry with pagans.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":48275,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:26","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","summary_en":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:26","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","summary_en":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:26","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","summary_en":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:26","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:26-27<\/strong> <em>King Solomon<\/em> had led the nation <em>into sin by his foreign wives<\/em> (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","summary_en":"13:26-27 King Solomon had led the nation into sin by his foreign wives (1 Kgs 11). If intermarriage with pagans was allowed to continue, the same apostasy would overtake the community. Nehemiah would not let that happen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":10444,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Papyri*, Elephantine","title_en":"Papyri*, Elephantine","content_ro":"<h3>ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI*<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic documents from the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with numerous broken papyri and fragments.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts are of considerable archaeological importance. Several centuries older than most of the Dead Sea Scrolls, they portray the social, political, and religious life of a Jewish community outside Palestine. Several points of contact are made with the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Since most of the documents are legal texts, they are an important link in the history of law in the ancient Near East. The texts also provide valuable information about the Aramaic spoken in the period and illustrate the daily life of a Persian frontier military colony.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientElephantine\">Ancient Elephantine<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was located on the southern tip of a small island in the Nile River a few kilometers north of the first cataract, opposite its twin city, ancient Syene (modern Aswan). The Bible probably includes the twin cities of Elephantine and Syene in two occurrences of the phrase “from Migdol to Syene” (Ez 29:10; 30:6), that is, from Egypt’s northern border to its southern border. The city’s name was an Aramaic version of an Egyptian name meaning “city of ivories” and was translated into Greek as <em>Elephantine.<\/em> Because of its strategic importance on Egypt’s southern boundary with Nubia, it was probably fortified as early as the third dynasty (27th century <span>BC<\/span>) and figured repeatedly in Egypt’s military history.<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was also a major commercial center. Since the first cataract was just upstream from Elephantine\/ Syene, the twin towns were the terminal ports for deep water navigation. Both towns had wharves and were fortified with garrisons to protect the trade in ivory, animal skins, spices, minerals, slaves, and food. Also a religious center, Elephantine was the temple city of Khnum, the Egyptian god of the cataract region, who presided over the flood cycles of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DiscoveryofthePapyri\">Discovery of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine came into archaeological prominence with the discoveries of the papyri. The discoveries were made in three stages. The first group to be published (in 1906) had been gathered by purchases from antiquities dealers and was housed in the Cairo Museum. That first publication stimulated German and French excavations at Elephantine in the hope of discovering more papyri. The Berlin Museum was rewarded for its efforts with a second group of papyri, published in 1911. Ironically, a group of papyri discovered in the late 19th century was the last to be studied and published. American scholar C. E. Wilbour purchased papyri in 1893 from some Arab women at Aswan. In storage until Wilbour’s daughter bequeathed them to the Brooklyn Museum, they were finally published in 1953. Since 1912, other excavations have been mounted by the pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome and the Egyptian government, but no further papyri were found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishColony\">Jewish Colony<\/p>\n<p>At the time the papyri were written, the Jews were already well established in Elephantine. The legal documents among the excavated papyri give a clear picture of life in the military colony at Elephantine. In addition to the Jewish mercenaries (“men of the regiment”), Jewish civilians (“men of the town”) were also present. The soldiers were organized into military units, which also appear to have had socioeconomic functions. Though subject to military discipline, the soldiers enjoyed considerable personal freedom. They led normal family lives, engaged in all types of commerce, and bequeathed their properties to their children. Marriage at Elephantine required the consent of the bride as well as the father, and could be dissolved by either party through a public declaration that he or she “hates” the other.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews worshiped in their own temple, which was dedicated to the Hebrew God, whom they called Yahu (a variation on Yahweh). Political and religious leaders at Elephantine were in correspondence with officials in Jerusalem and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>There is no conclusive evidence regarding when the Jewish presence at Elephantine began. Jews could have entered Egypt on any of several occasions from the eighth to the early sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. One document from Elephantine claims that the Jewish temple there was built during a period of native Egyptian rule before the Persian conquest under Cambyses (reigned 529–522 <span>BC<\/span>). That would give a date for the construction of the Elephantine temple by the mid-sixth century at the latest.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElephantineJudaism\">Elephantine Judaism<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the law of a single sanctuary (Dt 12:1-11), and in spite of the recent reforms of kings Hezekiah and Josiah in the seventh and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> that centralized worship in Jerusalem, the Elephantine Jews seem to have felt no wrong in having a temple in Egypt. Neither the German, French, Italian, nor Egyptian excavations located the Jewish temple, but the documents record that the temple was oriented toward Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews may have recognized Jerusalem’s primacy in religious affairs. When the temple at Elephantine was destroyed by priests of the Khnum temple in 410 <span>BC<\/span>, an appeal was sent to Johanan the high priest (cf. Neh 12:22; 13:28) and Bagoas the governor of Judah, seeking their permission and influence for its restoration. The appeal produced no response, perhaps because of the Jerusalem leadership’s disapproval of the temple in Egypt. A second appeal, sent three years later to Bagoas, governor of Judah, and to Delaiah and Shelemiah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria, produced an oral reply, recorded in a memorandum. The reply ordered the temple’s rebuilding and the resumption of meal and incense offerings. Permission to reinstitute the burnt offering, however, was not given, perhaps as a concession to Egyptian or Persian religious convictions. A deed for a piece of property, dated 402 <span>BC<\/span>, mentions the temple of Yahu, implying that it was in fact rebuilt.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews probably brought with them to Egypt the popular religion that was so strongly denounced by the prophets before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. God was central in their faith, but they also worshiped other gods, even if only in a subsidiary fashion. Evidence of departure from orthodox worship of God comes from a list of offerings that mentions two Aramean deities, Eshembethel and Anathbethel. Oaths at Elephantine were sworn almost exclusively in the name of Yahu, but they were also sworn occasionally in the names of an Egyptian goddess, Sati, and another Aramean deity, Herembethel. Salutations in letters invoked the blessings of a variety of deities. Moreover, intermarriage with surrounding peoples, forbidden in the OT because it would lead to religious apostasy (Ex 34:11-16; Dt 7:1-5), had become a common practice at Elephantine. It was a contemporary problem in Israel as well under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1–10:44; Neh 13:23-28). Children of mixed marriages in Elephantine often had Egyptian names.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the archives also show that the Elephantine Jews continued to observe the Jewish feasts. An order from King Darius II in 419 <span>BC<\/span> commanded the Jews at Elephantine to observe the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The text, broken immediately before this reference, presumably also contained instructions to observe the Passover. Four ostraca (potsherds) also refer to the Sabbath but provide few clues regarding Sabbath observance at Elephantine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageofthePapyri\">Language of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Except for slight differences, the Aramaic of the Elephantine papyri is the same as biblical Aramaic. Both are a part of a dialect known as Imperial Aramaic, the international and commercial language of the Persian Empire. The personal names continued to be Hebrew, but there is no direct evidence that Hebrew was used by the community. Aramaic was the daily language, and there is no suggestion of controversy over whether or not Hebrew should be used in Jewish homes, as was the case with Nehemiah in Jerusalem (Neh 13:23-25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI*<\/h3>\n<p>Aramaic documents from the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with numerous broken papyri and fragments.<\/p>\n<p>The manuscripts are of considerable archaeological importance. Several centuries older than most of the Dead Sea Scrolls, they portray the social, political, and religious life of a Jewish community outside Palestine. Several points of contact are made with the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Since most of the documents are legal texts, they are an important link in the history of law in the ancient Near East. The texts also provide valuable information about the Aramaic spoken in the period and illustrate the daily life of a Persian frontier military colony.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientElephantine\">Ancient Elephantine<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was located on the southern tip of a small island in the Nile River a few kilometers north of the first cataract, opposite its twin city, ancient Syene (modern Aswan). The Bible probably includes the twin cities of Elephantine and Syene in two occurrences of the phrase “from Migdol to Syene” (Ez 29:10; 30:6), that is, from Egypt’s northern border to its southern border. The city’s name was an Aramaic version of an Egyptian name meaning “city of ivories” and was translated into Greek as <em>Elephantine.<\/em> Because of its strategic importance on Egypt’s southern boundary with Nubia, it was probably fortified as early as the third dynasty (27th century <span>BC<\/span>) and figured repeatedly in Egypt’s military history.<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine was also a major commercial center. Since the first cataract was just upstream from Elephantine\/ Syene, the twin towns were the terminal ports for deep water navigation. Both towns had wharves and were fortified with garrisons to protect the trade in ivory, animal skins, spices, minerals, slaves, and food. Also a religious center, Elephantine was the temple city of Khnum, the Egyptian god of the cataract region, who presided over the flood cycles of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DiscoveryofthePapyri\">Discovery of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Elephantine came into archaeological prominence with the discoveries of the papyri. The discoveries were made in three stages. The first group to be published (in 1906) had been gathered by purchases from antiquities dealers and was housed in the Cairo Museum. That first publication stimulated German and French excavations at Elephantine in the hope of discovering more papyri. The Berlin Museum was rewarded for its efforts with a second group of papyri, published in 1911. Ironically, a group of papyri discovered in the late 19th century was the last to be studied and published. American scholar C. E. Wilbour purchased papyri in 1893 from some Arab women at Aswan. In storage until Wilbour’s daughter bequeathed them to the Brooklyn Museum, they were finally published in 1953. Since 1912, other excavations have been mounted by the pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome and the Egyptian government, but no further papyri were found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishColony\">Jewish Colony<\/p>\n<p>At the time the papyri were written, the Jews were already well established in Elephantine. The legal documents among the excavated papyri give a clear picture of life in the military colony at Elephantine. In addition to the Jewish mercenaries (“men of the regiment”), Jewish civilians (“men of the town”) were also present. The soldiers were organized into military units, which also appear to have had socioeconomic functions. Though subject to military discipline, the soldiers enjoyed considerable personal freedom. They led normal family lives, engaged in all types of commerce, and bequeathed their properties to their children. Marriage at Elephantine required the consent of the bride as well as the father, and could be dissolved by either party through a public declaration that he or she “hates” the other.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews worshiped in their own temple, which was dedicated to the Hebrew God, whom they called Yahu (a variation on Yahweh). Political and religious leaders at Elephantine were in correspondence with officials in Jerusalem and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>There is no conclusive evidence regarding when the Jewish presence at Elephantine began. Jews could have entered Egypt on any of several occasions from the eighth to the early sixth centuries <span>BC<\/span>. One document from Elephantine claims that the Jewish temple there was built during a period of native Egyptian rule before the Persian conquest under Cambyses (reigned 529–522 <span>BC<\/span>). That would give a date for the construction of the Elephantine temple by the mid-sixth century at the latest.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ElephantineJudaism\">Elephantine Judaism<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the law of a single sanctuary (Dt 12:1-11), and in spite of the recent reforms of kings Hezekiah and Josiah in the seventh and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> that centralized worship in Jerusalem, the Elephantine Jews seem to have felt no wrong in having a temple in Egypt. Neither the German, French, Italian, nor Egyptian excavations located the Jewish temple, but the documents record that the temple was oriented toward Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews may have recognized Jerusalem’s primacy in religious affairs. When the temple at Elephantine was destroyed by priests of the Khnum temple in 410 <span>BC<\/span>, an appeal was sent to Johanan the high priest (cf. Neh 12:22; 13:28) and Bagoas the governor of Judah, seeking their permission and influence for its restoration. The appeal produced no response, perhaps because of the Jerusalem leadership’s disapproval of the temple in Egypt. A second appeal, sent three years later to Bagoas, governor of Judah, and to Delaiah and Shelemiah, sons of Sanballat, governor of Samaria, produced an oral reply, recorded in a memorandum. The reply ordered the temple’s rebuilding and the resumption of meal and incense offerings. Permission to reinstitute the burnt offering, however, was not given, perhaps as a concession to Egyptian or Persian religious convictions. A deed for a piece of property, dated 402 <span>BC<\/span>, mentions the temple of Yahu, implying that it was in fact rebuilt.<\/p>\n<p>The Elephantine Jews probably brought with them to Egypt the popular religion that was so strongly denounced by the prophets before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. God was central in their faith, but they also worshiped other gods, even if only in a subsidiary fashion. Evidence of departure from orthodox worship of God comes from a list of offerings that mentions two Aramean deities, Eshembethel and Anathbethel. Oaths at Elephantine were sworn almost exclusively in the name of Yahu, but they were also sworn occasionally in the names of an Egyptian goddess, Sati, and another Aramean deity, Herembethel. Salutations in letters invoked the blessings of a variety of deities. Moreover, intermarriage with surrounding peoples, forbidden in the OT because it would lead to religious apostasy (Ex 34:11-16; Dt 7:1-5), had become a common practice at Elephantine. It was a contemporary problem in Israel as well under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1–10:44; Neh 13:23-28). Children of mixed marriages in Elephantine often had Egyptian names.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the archives also show that the Elephantine Jews continued to observe the Jewish feasts. An order from King Darius II in 419 <span>BC<\/span> commanded the Jews at Elephantine to observe the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The text, broken immediately before this reference, presumably also contained instructions to observe the Passover. Four ostraca (potsherds) also refer to the Sabbath but provide few clues regarding Sabbath observance at Elephantine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageofthePapyri\">Language of the Papyri<\/p>\n<p>Except for slight differences, the Aramaic of the Elephantine papyri is the same as biblical Aramaic. Both are a part of a dialect known as Imperial Aramaic, the international and commercial language of the Persian Empire. The personal names continued to be Hebrew, but there is no direct evidence that Hebrew was used by the community. Aramaic was the daily language, and there is no suggestion of controversy over whether or not Hebrew should be used in Jewish homes, as was the case with Nehemiah in Jerusalem (Neh 13:23-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI* Aramaic documents from the fifth century BC discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with nume...","summary_en":"ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI* Aramaic documents from the fifth century BC discovered at Elephantine, an island in the Nile River. At the time of the documents’ writing, Elephantine was a Persian military outpost, manned in part by a group of Jewish mercenaries with their families. The documents, numbering over 100, belong primarily to three archives—two familial and one communal. The archives contained many complete scrolls that were still tied and sealed at the time of their discovery, along with nume...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16700,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Horonite","title_en":"Horonite","content_ro":"<h3>HORONITE<\/h3>\n<p>Reference to either the residence or birthplace of Sanballat, who opposed Nehemiah’s restoration program (Neh 2:10, 19; 13:28). The name probably derives from the two cities of Upper and Lower Beth-horon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HORONITE<\/h3>\n<p>Reference to either the residence or birthplace of Sanballat, who opposed Nehemiah’s restoration program (Neh 2:10, 19; 13:28). The name probably derives from the two cities of Upper and Lower Beth-horon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HORONITE Reference to either the residence or birthplace of Sanballat, who opposed Nehemiah’s restoration program (Neh 2:10, 19; 13:28). The name probably derives from the two cities of Upper and Lower Beth-horon.","summary_en":"HORONITE Reference to either the residence or birthplace of Sanballat, who opposed Nehemiah’s restoration program (Neh 2:10, 19; 13:28). The name probably derives from the two cities of Upper and Lower Beth-horon.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18750,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoiada","title_en":"Jehoiada","content_ro":"<h3>JEHOIADA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Benaiah, a high military officer during the reigns of David and Solomon. Jehoiada was a priest (1 Chr 27:5) who joined forces with David at Hebron and was identified with the house of Aaron (12:27). <em>See<\/em> Benaiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. High priest in Jerusalem who organized and led the coup that overthrew Queen Athaliah of Judah, together with the Baal cult she supported, and established his nephew Joash (Jehoash) on the throne (2 Kgs 11:4-21; 2 Chr 23:1-15). As long as he lived, Jehoiada kept the king true to the Lord (2 Kgs 12:1-16; 2 Chr 23:16–24:14). He died at the age of 130 and was buried in the city of David among the kings.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benaiah’s son, who succeeded Ahithophel as King David’s counselor (1 Chr 27:33-34); he was probably a grandson of #1 above, although some believe these to be the same.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Joiada, Paseah’s son, in Nehemiah 3:6. <em>See<\/em> Joiada #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Alternate name for Joiada, son of Eliashib the high priest, in Nehemiah 13:28. <em>See<\/em> Joiada #2.<\/li>\n<li>6. Priest during the time of Jeremiah who was succeeded by Zephaniah as overseer of the temple (Jer 29:26).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEHOIADA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Benaiah, a high military officer during the reigns of David and Solomon. Jehoiada was a priest (1 Chr 27:5) who joined forces with David at Hebron and was identified with the house of Aaron (12:27). <em>See<\/em> Benaiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. High priest in Jerusalem who organized and led the coup that overthrew Queen Athaliah of Judah, together with the Baal cult she supported, and established his nephew Joash (Jehoash) on the throne (2 Kgs 11:4-21; 2 Chr 23:1-15). As long as he lived, Jehoiada kept the king true to the Lord (2 Kgs 12:1-16; 2 Chr 23:16–24:14). He died at the age of 130 and was buried in the city of David among the kings.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benaiah’s son, who succeeded Ahithophel as King David’s counselor (1 Chr 27:33-34); he was probably a grandson of #1 above, although some believe these to be the same.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Joiada, Paseah’s son, in Nehemiah 3:6. <em>See<\/em> Joiada #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Alternate name for Joiada, son of Eliashib the high priest, in Nehemiah 13:28. <em>See<\/em> Joiada #2.<\/li>\n<li>6. Priest during the time of Jeremiah who was succeeded by Zephaniah as overseer of the temple (Jer 29:26).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEHOIADA 1. Father of Benaiah, a high military officer during the reigns of David and Solomon. Jehoiada was a priest (1 Chr 27:5) who joined forces with David at Hebron and was identified with the house of Aaron (12:27). See Benaiah #1. 2. High priest in Jerusalem who organized and led the coup that overthrew Queen Athaliah of Judah, together with the Baal cult she supported, and established his nephew Joash (Jehoash) on the throne (2 Kgs 11:4-21; 2 Chr 23:1-15). As long as he lived, Jehoiada...","summary_en":"JEHOIADA 1. Father of Benaiah, a high military officer during the reigns of David and Solomon. Jehoiada was a priest (1 Chr 27:5) who joined forces with David at Hebron and was identified with the house of Aaron (12:27). See Benaiah #1. 2. High priest in Jerusalem who organized and led the coup that overthrew Queen Athaliah of Judah, together with the Baal cult she supported, and established his nephew Joash (Jehoash) on the throne (2 Kgs 11:4-21; 2 Chr 23:1-15). As long as he lived, Jehoiada...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20411,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joiada","title_en":"Joiada","content_ro":"<h3>JOIADA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Paseah’s son who, with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite and high priest in Jerusalem during the postexilic era, the great-grandson of Jeshua, son of Eliashib, and father of Jonathan (“Johanan” or “Jehohanan,” Neh 12:10-11, 22). He is alternately called Jehoiada in Nehemiah 13:28, where we read that one of his sons was expelled from the priesthood for marrying a daughter of Sanballat, governor of Samaria.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOIADA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Paseah’s son who, with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite and high priest in Jerusalem during the postexilic era, the great-grandson of Jeshua, son of Eliashib, and father of Jonathan (“Johanan” or “Jehohanan,” Neh 12:10-11, 22). He is alternately called Jehoiada in Nehemiah 13:28, where we read that one of his sons was expelled from the priesthood for marrying a daughter of Sanballat, governor of Samaria.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOIADA 1. Paseah’s son who, with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:6). 2. Levite and high priest in Jerusalem during the postexilic era, the great-grandson of Jeshua, son of Eliashib, and father of Jonathan (“Johanan” or “Jehohanan,” Neh 12:10-11, 22). He is alternately called Jehoiada in Nehemiah 13:28, where we read that one of his sons was expelled from the priesthood for marrying a daughter of Sanballat, governor of Samaria.","summary_en":"JOIADA 1. Paseah’s son who, with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:6). 2. Levite and high priest in Jerusalem during the postexilic era, the great-grandson of Jeshua, son of Eliashib, and father of Jonathan (“Johanan” or “Jehohanan,” Neh 12:10-11, 22). He is alternately called Jehoiada in Nehemiah 13:28, where we read that one of his sons was expelled from the priesthood for marrying a daughter of Sanballat, governor of Samaria.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33854,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sanballat","title_en":"Sanballat","content_ro":"<h3>SANBALLAT<\/h3>\n<p>Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Nehemiah’s determination to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem was in essence an assertion of Judean independence from Sanballat and Samaritan control.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SANBALLAT<\/h3>\n<p>Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Nehemiah’s determination to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem was in essence an assertion of Judean independence from Sanballat and Samaritan control.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SANBALLAT Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 BC. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Bab...","summary_en":"SANBALLAT Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 BC. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Bab...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48276,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:28","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","summary_en":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:28","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","summary_en":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:28","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","summary_en":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:28","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:28<\/strong> Even the family of <em>the high priest<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah <em>banished<\/em> the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","summary_en":"13:28 Even the family of the high priest, who were supposed to be Israel’s spiritual leaders, had participated in the sin of intermarriage with unbelieving foreigners (cp. Lev 21:14). Nehemiah banished the offender, stripping him of status and removing his rights in the Jewish community.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":48277,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","summary_en":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","summary_en":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","summary_en":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:29","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:29","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:29<\/strong> <em>Remember them, O my God:<\/em> Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who <em>defiled the priesthood<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","summary_en":"13:29 Remember them, O my God: Many would probably resent Nehemiah’s aggressive attack on intermarriage in the family of the high priest. So he prayed for God’s judgment to fall on these spiritual leaders who defiled the priesthood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":48278,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","summary_en":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","summary_en":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","summary_en":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 13:30","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 13:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>13:30-31<\/strong> These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on <em>making certain<\/em> and making <em>sure<\/em> shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.<\/p>","summary_ro":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","summary_en":"13:30-31 These final verses summarize Nehemiah’s reform. The emphasis on making certain and making sure shows that Nehemiah checked to see that the people did what they agreed to. He held people accountable for their commitments and did not allow for half-hearted reform.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":62153,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89779,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117405,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145031,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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