Neemia 4
1 Când a auzit Sanbalat că zidim iarăş zidul, s-a mâniat şi s-a supărat foarte tare. Şi-a bătut joc de Iudei,
2 şi a zis înaintea fraţilor săi şi înaintea ostaşilor Samariei: ,,La ce lucrează aceşti Iudei neputincioşi? Oare vor fi lăsaţi să lucreze? Oare vor jertfi? Oare vor isprăvi? Oare vor da ei viaţă unor pietre înmormântate supt mormane de praf şi arse de foc?``
3 Tobia, Amonitul, era lângă el, şi a zis: ,,Să zidească numai! Dacă se va sui o vulpe, le va dărâma zidul lor de piatră.``
4 ,,Ascultă, Dumnezeul nostru, cum sântem batjocoriţi! Fă să cadă ocările lor asupra capului lor, şi dă-i pradă pe un pământ unde să fie robi.
5 Nu le ierta fărădelegea, şi păcatul lor să nu fie şters dinaintea Ta; căci au necăjit pe cei ce zidesc.``
6 Am zidit zidul, care a fost isprăvit pretutindeni până la jumătate din înălţimea lui. Şi poporul lucra cu inimă.
7 Dar Sanbalat, Tobia, Arabii, Amoniţii şi Asdodiţii, s-au supărat foarte tare când au auzit că dregerea zidurilor înainta şi că spărturile începeau să se astupe.
8 S-au unit toţi împreună ca să vină împotriva Ierusalimului, şi să-i facă stricăciuni.
9 Ne-am rugat Dumnezeului nostru, şi am pus o strajă zi şi noapte ca să ne apere împotriva loviturilor lor.
10 Însă Iuda zicea: ,,Puterile celor ce duc poverile slăbesc, şi dărâmăturile sânt multe; nu vom putea să zidim zidul.``
11 Şi vrăjmaşii noştri ziceau: ,,Nu vor şti şi nu vor vedea nimic până vom ajunge în mijlocul lor; îi vom ucide şi vom face astfel să înceteze lucrarea.``
12 Şi Iudeii, cari locuiau lângă ei, au venit de zece ori şi ne-au înştiinţat despre toate locurile pe unde veneau la noi.
13 De aceea am pus, în locurile cele mai de jos, dinapoia zidului, şi în locurile tari, poporul pe familii, i-am aşezat pe toţi cu săbiile, suliţele şi arcurile lor.
14 M-am uitat, şi sculându-mă, am zis mai marilor, dregătorilor şi celuilalt popor: ,,Nu vă temeţi de ei! Aduceţi-vă aminte de Domnul cel mare şi înfricoşat, şi luptaţi pentru fraţii voştri, pentru fiii voştri şi fetele voastre, pentru nevestele voastre, şi pentru casele voastre!``
15 Când au auzit vrăjmaşii noştri că am fost înştiinţaţi, Dumnezeu le-a nimicit planul, şi ne-am întors cu toţii la zid, fiecare la lucrarea lui.
16 Din ziua aceea, jumătate din oamenii mei lucrau, iar celalaltă jumătate era înarmată cu suliţe, cu scuturi, cu arcuri şi cu platoşe. Căpeteniile erau înapoia întregei case a lui Iuda.
17 Ceice zideau zidul, şi cei ce duceau sau încărcau poverile, cu o mână lucrau, iar cu alta ţineau arma.
18 Fiecare din ei, când lucra, îşi avea sabia încinsă la mijloc. Cel ce suna din trâmbiţă stătea lângă mine.
19 Am zis mai marilor, dregătorilor, şi celuilalt popor: ,,Lucrarea este mare şi întinsă, şi noi sântem risipiţi pe zid, departe unii de alţii.
20 La sunetul trâmbiţei, să vă strângeţi la noi, spre locul de unde o veţi auzi. Dumnezeul nostru va lupta pentru noi.``
21 Aşa făceam lucrarea: jumătate din noi stând cu suliţa în mână din zorii zilei până la ivirea stelelor.
22 În acelaş timp, am mai zis poporului: ,,Fiecare să petreacă noaptea în Ierusalim cu slujitorul lui; noaptea să facem de strajă, iar ziua să lucrăm.``
23 Şi nu ne-am desbrăcat de haine, nici eu, nici fraţii mei, nici slujitorii mei, nici oamenii de strajă, cari erau subt porunca mea. Fiecare se ducea cu armele la apă.
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In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. 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In time, the monotheism of J...","summary_en":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":70075,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samaritans","title_en":"Samaritans","content_ro":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","summary_en":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97701,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samaritans","title_en":"Samaritans","content_ro":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","summary_en":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":125327,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samaritans","title_en":"Samaritans","content_ro":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samaritans<\/h3>\n<p>Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of Judaism prevailed, but with significant modifications: The Samaritan scriptures were limited to the Pentateuch, and their worship was centered on a new temple on Mount Gerizim above Shechem.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans also had a long history of conflict with the Jews, beginning after the Jews’ return from exile (see Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23). Alexander the Great and later Greek generals made Shechem an important base, knowing that they could find sympathetic, anti-Jewish allies there. The Jews destroyed Shechem in 128 <span>BC<\/span> and burned the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans returned the favor in <span>AD<\/span> 6–9 when they desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by scattering human bones from a cemetery during one Passover. By Jesus’ day, smoldering tension existed between Judea and Samaria.<\/p>\n<p>Jews in the time of Jesus therefore avoided traveling through this land whose people they perceived as hostile and impure. When Jesus traveled through Samaria and met a Samaritan woman, all of the fraught tensions of this relationship are in view. A first-century reader would barely expect Jesus and the woman to acknowledge each other, much less speak. Yet Jesus reached beyond his ethnic identity to call even a Samaritan woman of ill-repute to believe.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 17:21-41; Ezra 4:1-5; Neh 4:1-23; John 4:1-42<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","summary_en":"Samaritans Samaria was a geographic region north of Judea centered around the ancient city of Shechem (Sychar in the New Testament was located at or near the site of Shechem). After Israel was conquered in 722 BC and the cities of Samaria and Shechem were destroyed, this region was repopulated with people from throughout the Assyrian empire (2 Kgs 17:21-41). These inhabitants introduced countless pagan practices, making the religious impurity of the land infamous. In time, the monotheism of J...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27208,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27223,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29799,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Persians Persia","title_en":"Persians Persia","content_ro":"<h3>PERSIA, PERSIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Country lying just to the east of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and covering virtually the same territory as present-day Iran. It was known in ancient times by various forms of Fars or Pars, which came down to us as Persia. It continued to be known as Persia until 1935, when its name was changed to Iran. The official modern language of the country is Persian, an Indo-European language written in Arabic characters.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Geography and Climate<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p>• Persia and the Bible<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographyandClimate\">Geography and Climate<\/p>\n<p>Persia served as a geographical link between inner Asia and the plateau of Asia Minor. It has been described as a triangle set between two depressions, the Persian Gulf on the south and the Caspian Sea to the north. The sides of the triangle are made up of mountain ranges that enclose an area of desert. On the west the Zagros Mountains run northwest-southeast, with many fertile valleys that are suitable for agriculture. Severe summer heat requires that animals be taken to cooler elevations during that season.<\/p>\n<p>On the north is the Elburz range, with Mt Demavend reaching a height of more than 19,000 feet (5,791.2 meters). The most heavily populated area of Persia is Azerbaijan, which, because of routes leading from various northern points, was one of the most accessible parts of the country and therefore had to be protected by strong fortifications.<\/p>\n<p>Farther east, the Elburz becomes the mountains of Khorasan, which also afford easy passage into the country. This district, which has been called the “granary of Iran,” has been susceptible to foreign invasion over the centuries. On the south, the third side of the triangle, is another mountain range, the Makran. Within these ranges is a saline depression, the southern part of which has been regarded as more arid than the Gobi Desert.<\/p>\n<p>One of the important sections of the country was actually an extension of the Mesopotamian plain; this was known in ancient times as Susiana and now is called Khuzistan. Here the capital, Susa, was situated. Adjoining it to the north is a mountain spur that was the location of Luristan, famous for its bronzes. Another plain, near the Caspian Sea, is tropical in climate; because of heavy rainfall, it produces an abundance and variety of food.<\/p>\n<p>Lacking a river like the Nile or the Tigris-Euphrates system, and having no regular seasonal rains as in Palestine, the agriculture of Persia is dependent on irrigation. Rainfall varies dramatically from one region to another and the climate differs markedly with the topography.<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity the lower mountains were heavily forested with many kinds of trees sought for building by the Sumerian kings of Mesopotamia. Alabaster, marble, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise were used from early times. Iron, copper, tin, and lead were found here. In modern times the oil resources of Iran have been widely exploited.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>The Medes (a term often used synonymously with Persians, since the two are so closely related) are a people about whom relatively little is known. They were pictured in Assyrian reliefs. It was the Median Cyaxares who teamed up with the Babylonian Nabopolassar to bring about the destruction of Nineveh in 612 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, a small kingdom of Persians was established at Parsumash under Achaemenes, after whom the great Persian dynasty was named. Teispes (675–640 <span>BC<\/span>), the son and successor of Achaemenes, was under the domination of the Medes, who were gathering forces to overthrow Assyria. Trouble for the Medes freed Teispes from their control, and the weakness of Elam enabled him to gain the province of Parsa (modern Fars). The Assyrians under Ashurbanipal destroyed the nation of Elam and came into contact with the Persians under Cyrus I, son of Teispes.<\/p>\n<p>Cambyses, son of Cyrus, married the daughter of the Median king Astyages; their son, Cyrus II the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), built a great palace complex for himself at Pasargadae. The Babylonian king, Nabonidus, allied himself with Cyrus against the Medes. Cyrus fought and defeated his grandfather, Astyages, and made the Median capital, Ecbatana, “place of assembly” (Hamadan), his own capital and set up his archives there (cf. Ezr 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>Cyrus, and later Darius, exhibited an attitude of benevolence and generosity toward defeated enemies, a policy that sometimes worked to the disadvantage of the Persians. A capable military leader, Cyrus invaded Asia Minor and defeated Croesus, king of Lydia, and brought the Greek cities of the area into subjection. He then solidified his eastern frontier. In 539 <span>BC<\/span> he captured Babylon with virtually no resistance and decreed that the exiled Jews could return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The son of Cyrus, Cambyses II (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>), conquered Egypt. Upon his suicide, the empire nearly disintegrated. Cambyses was succeeded by Darius I the Great (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), the son of Hystaspis, satrap of Parthia. Darius put down the internal revolts and consolidated the empire. For efficient administration of his vast empire, he created 20 provinces or satrapies, each under a satrap or “protector of the kingdom.” Other offices were instituted to check on the activities of the satraps. Darius changed the principal capital from Pasargadae to Persepolis, where his building activities were continued by later Achaemenid kings to make a tremendous palace complex. He was a follower of Zoroaster and a worshiper of Ahura Mazda, as were Xerxes and Artaxerxes.<\/p>\n<p>The early victory of Darius over the rebels is commemorated on the famous rock of Bisitun (Behistun). This memorial took the form of reliefs and a long cuneiform inscription in three languages: Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. A copy of these records was made by Henry C. Rawlinson in 1855 at considerable risk, for the monument was difficult to approach, situated some 500 feet (152.4 meters) above the plain. This accomplishment played a large part in the deciphering of languages in the cuneiform script. During the later part of Darius’s reign, he suffered defeat at the hands of the Greeks at Marathon (491 <span>BC<\/span>). Upon his death, Darius was buried in a rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam, a short distance northeast of Persepolis. This was a memorial consisting of reliefs and a trilingual inscription that lauds his person and reign. Later kings were buried in tombs cut in the same cliff.<\/p>\n<p>Darius was succeeded by his son Khshayarsha, better known as Xerxes (485–465 <span>BC<\/span>). An inscription at Persepolis lists the nations subject to him at the time of his accession and confirms his devotion to Ahura Mazda. During his rule, the Persian fleet was defeated at Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Artakhshathra, 464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) was followed by Darius II (423–405), Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359), Artaxerxes III Ochus (358–338), Arses (337–336), and finally Darius III (335–331).<\/p>\n<p>The loss of the empire has been attributed to the cowardice of Darius III, whose armies were defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus in 333 <span>BC<\/span> and ultimately at Gaugamela, near modern Erbil (Arbela) in 331 <span>BC<\/span>. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Persia became the lot of Seleucus, one of his generals. Persian sources say little of the period between Darius III and the beginnings of Sassanian rule in the early third century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PersiaandtheBible\">Persia and the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The biblical references to Persia occur in the later period of OT history and in the writings of the prophets who ministered during that time. The earliest mention is the reference to Cyrus in Isaiah 44:28–45:1, a passage that has confounded scholars who have felt that the prophecy could not be so precise. This predictive prophecy was given to Isaiah by God more than 150 years before Cyrus captured Babylon and decreed the return of the captive Jews to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The chronological notations in Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Zechariah, Haggai, and Esther enable us to set chronological markers with some degree of certainty. The first year of Cyrus’s reign over Babylon (Ezr 1:1) may be fixed at 538 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebuilding of the temple met with opposition from enemies of the Jews in the time of Cyrus and Darius (Ezr 4).<\/p>\n<p>It was at this time that the prophets Haggai and Zechariah encouraged the Jews and urged the completion of the temple. Haggai 1:1 places the message of that prophet on the first day of the sixth month of the second year of Darius I. That translates into August 29, 520 <span>BC<\/span>. Similarly, Zechariah 1:1 is dated to the eighth month of the year, that is, October\/November 520 <span>BC<\/span>. The letter that was sent to Darius concerning the decree for rebuilding the temple (Ezr 5:6-17) brought about a search of the royal archives that Cyrus had set up at Ecbatana (cf. 6:1-2). The finding of the decree of Cyrus enabled the Jews to complete the temple project, which was finished on March 12, 515 <span>BC<\/span> (the third day of the month Adar in the sixth year of Darius, Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>The work of Nehemiah occurred in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Nehemiah’s request that he be allowed to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the wall was made in the month of Nisan in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, April\/May 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This building project also met with strong opposition. The date is generally confirmed by a letter from the 17th year of Darius II (408 <span>BC<\/span>) and found among the Elephantine papyri in Egypt. Two personal names found in Nehemiah also occur in this letter: the sons of Sanballat, Nehemiah’s most virulent enemy (cf. Neh 2:19; 4:1-8), and Johanan the grandson of Eliashib, who was high priest at Jerusalem when Nehemiah arrived there (3:1). Another letter among these papyri grants Persian authority to the Jews at Elephantine to celebrate the Passover according to their custom.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is set in the time of King Ahasuerus, who is Xerxes, referred to in Ezra 4:6 between Darius and Artaxerxes. The Hebrew Ahasuerus represents Khshayarsha, whom the Greeks called Xerxes. On the other hand, the Septuagint has Artaxerxes, and Josephus names Artaxerxes as the king mentioned in the book of Esther. Esther provides a number of details of the life and customs of Persian royalty.<\/p>\n<p>Persia also figures in the prophecies of Ezekiel, where Persia is named among the armies of Tyre (Ez 27:10). It is also listed as an ally of Gog in the invasion of Israel (38:5). The recorded history in Daniel refers to Persia (Dn 10:1), as do the prophecies of that book (8:20; 11:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Postexilic Period; Medes, Media, Median.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERSIA, PERSIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Country lying just to the east of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and covering virtually the same territory as present-day Iran. It was known in ancient times by various forms of Fars or Pars, which came down to us as Persia. It continued to be known as Persia until 1935, when its name was changed to Iran. The official modern language of the country is Persian, an Indo-European language written in Arabic characters.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Geography and Climate<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p>• Persia and the Bible<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographyandClimate\">Geography and Climate<\/p>\n<p>Persia served as a geographical link between inner Asia and the plateau of Asia Minor. It has been described as a triangle set between two depressions, the Persian Gulf on the south and the Caspian Sea to the north. The sides of the triangle are made up of mountain ranges that enclose an area of desert. On the west the Zagros Mountains run northwest-southeast, with many fertile valleys that are suitable for agriculture. Severe summer heat requires that animals be taken to cooler elevations during that season.<\/p>\n<p>On the north is the Elburz range, with Mt Demavend reaching a height of more than 19,000 feet (5,791.2 meters). The most heavily populated area of Persia is Azerbaijan, which, because of routes leading from various northern points, was one of the most accessible parts of the country and therefore had to be protected by strong fortifications.<\/p>\n<p>Farther east, the Elburz becomes the mountains of Khorasan, which also afford easy passage into the country. This district, which has been called the “granary of Iran,” has been susceptible to foreign invasion over the centuries. On the south, the third side of the triangle, is another mountain range, the Makran. Within these ranges is a saline depression, the southern part of which has been regarded as more arid than the Gobi Desert.<\/p>\n<p>One of the important sections of the country was actually an extension of the Mesopotamian plain; this was known in ancient times as Susiana and now is called Khuzistan. Here the capital, Susa, was situated. Adjoining it to the north is a mountain spur that was the location of Luristan, famous for its bronzes. Another plain, near the Caspian Sea, is tropical in climate; because of heavy rainfall, it produces an abundance and variety of food.<\/p>\n<p>Lacking a river like the Nile or the Tigris-Euphrates system, and having no regular seasonal rains as in Palestine, the agriculture of Persia is dependent on irrigation. Rainfall varies dramatically from one region to another and the climate differs markedly with the topography.<\/p>\n<p>In antiquity the lower mountains were heavily forested with many kinds of trees sought for building by the Sumerian kings of Mesopotamia. Alabaster, marble, lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise were used from early times. Iron, copper, tin, and lead were found here. In modern times the oil resources of Iran have been widely exploited.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>The Medes (a term often used synonymously with Persians, since the two are so closely related) are a people about whom relatively little is known. They were pictured in Assyrian reliefs. It was the Median Cyaxares who teamed up with the Babylonian Nabopolassar to bring about the destruction of Nineveh in 612 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, a small kingdom of Persians was established at Parsumash under Achaemenes, after whom the great Persian dynasty was named. Teispes (675–640 <span>BC<\/span>), the son and successor of Achaemenes, was under the domination of the Medes, who were gathering forces to overthrow Assyria. Trouble for the Medes freed Teispes from their control, and the weakness of Elam enabled him to gain the province of Parsa (modern Fars). The Assyrians under Ashurbanipal destroyed the nation of Elam and came into contact with the Persians under Cyrus I, son of Teispes.<\/p>\n<p>Cambyses, son of Cyrus, married the daughter of the Median king Astyages; their son, Cyrus II the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), built a great palace complex for himself at Pasargadae. The Babylonian king, Nabonidus, allied himself with Cyrus against the Medes. Cyrus fought and defeated his grandfather, Astyages, and made the Median capital, Ecbatana, “place of assembly” (Hamadan), his own capital and set up his archives there (cf. Ezr 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>Cyrus, and later Darius, exhibited an attitude of benevolence and generosity toward defeated enemies, a policy that sometimes worked to the disadvantage of the Persians. A capable military leader, Cyrus invaded Asia Minor and defeated Croesus, king of Lydia, and brought the Greek cities of the area into subjection. He then solidified his eastern frontier. In 539 <span>BC<\/span> he captured Babylon with virtually no resistance and decreed that the exiled Jews could return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple (Ezr 1:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The son of Cyrus, Cambyses II (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>), conquered Egypt. Upon his suicide, the empire nearly disintegrated. Cambyses was succeeded by Darius I the Great (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), the son of Hystaspis, satrap of Parthia. Darius put down the internal revolts and consolidated the empire. For efficient administration of his vast empire, he created 20 provinces or satrapies, each under a satrap or “protector of the kingdom.” Other offices were instituted to check on the activities of the satraps. Darius changed the principal capital from Pasargadae to Persepolis, where his building activities were continued by later Achaemenid kings to make a tremendous palace complex. He was a follower of Zoroaster and a worshiper of Ahura Mazda, as were Xerxes and Artaxerxes.<\/p>\n<p>The early victory of Darius over the rebels is commemorated on the famous rock of Bisitun (Behistun). This memorial took the form of reliefs and a long cuneiform inscription in three languages: Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. A copy of these records was made by Henry C. Rawlinson in 1855 at considerable risk, for the monument was difficult to approach, situated some 500 feet (152.4 meters) above the plain. This accomplishment played a large part in the deciphering of languages in the cuneiform script. During the later part of Darius’s reign, he suffered defeat at the hands of the Greeks at Marathon (491 <span>BC<\/span>). Upon his death, Darius was buried in a rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam, a short distance northeast of Persepolis. This was a memorial consisting of reliefs and a trilingual inscription that lauds his person and reign. Later kings were buried in tombs cut in the same cliff.<\/p>\n<p>Darius was succeeded by his son Khshayarsha, better known as Xerxes (485–465 <span>BC<\/span>). An inscription at Persepolis lists the nations subject to him at the time of his accession and confirms his devotion to Ahura Mazda. During his rule, the Persian fleet was defeated at Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Artakhshathra, 464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) was followed by Darius II (423–405), Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359), Artaxerxes III Ochus (358–338), Arses (337–336), and finally Darius III (335–331).<\/p>\n<p>The loss of the empire has been attributed to the cowardice of Darius III, whose armies were defeated by Alexander the Great at Issus in 333 <span>BC<\/span> and ultimately at Gaugamela, near modern Erbil (Arbela) in 331 <span>BC<\/span>. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, Persia became the lot of Seleucus, one of his generals. Persian sources say little of the period between Darius III and the beginnings of Sassanian rule in the early third century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PersiaandtheBible\">Persia and the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The biblical references to Persia occur in the later period of OT history and in the writings of the prophets who ministered during that time. The earliest mention is the reference to Cyrus in Isaiah 44:28–45:1, a passage that has confounded scholars who have felt that the prophecy could not be so precise. This predictive prophecy was given to Isaiah by God more than 150 years before Cyrus captured Babylon and decreed the return of the captive Jews to Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The chronological notations in Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Zechariah, Haggai, and Esther enable us to set chronological markers with some degree of certainty. The first year of Cyrus’s reign over Babylon (Ezr 1:1) may be fixed at 538 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebuilding of the temple met with opposition from enemies of the Jews in the time of Cyrus and Darius (Ezr 4).<\/p>\n<p>It was at this time that the prophets Haggai and Zechariah encouraged the Jews and urged the completion of the temple. Haggai 1:1 places the message of that prophet on the first day of the sixth month of the second year of Darius I. That translates into August 29, 520 <span>BC<\/span>. Similarly, Zechariah 1:1 is dated to the eighth month of the year, that is, October\/November 520 <span>BC<\/span>. The letter that was sent to Darius concerning the decree for rebuilding the temple (Ezr 5:6-17) brought about a search of the royal archives that Cyrus had set up at Ecbatana (cf. 6:1-2). The finding of the decree of Cyrus enabled the Jews to complete the temple project, which was finished on March 12, 515 <span>BC<\/span> (the third day of the month Adar in the sixth year of Darius, Ezr 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>The work of Nehemiah occurred in the reign of Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Nehemiah’s request that he be allowed to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the wall was made in the month of Nisan in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, April\/May 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This building project also met with strong opposition. The date is generally confirmed by a letter from the 17th year of Darius II (408 <span>BC<\/span>) and found among the Elephantine papyri in Egypt. Two personal names found in Nehemiah also occur in this letter: the sons of Sanballat, Nehemiah’s most virulent enemy (cf. Neh 2:19; 4:1-8), and Johanan the grandson of Eliashib, who was high priest at Jerusalem when Nehemiah arrived there (3:1). Another letter among these papyri grants Persian authority to the Jews at Elephantine to celebrate the Passover according to their custom.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is set in the time of King Ahasuerus, who is Xerxes, referred to in Ezra 4:6 between Darius and Artaxerxes. The Hebrew Ahasuerus represents Khshayarsha, whom the Greeks called Xerxes. On the other hand, the Septuagint has Artaxerxes, and Josephus names Artaxerxes as the king mentioned in the book of Esther. Esther provides a number of details of the life and customs of Persian royalty.<\/p>\n<p>Persia also figures in the prophecies of Ezekiel, where Persia is named among the armies of Tyre (Ez 27:10). It is also listed as an ally of Gog in the invasion of Israel (38:5). The recorded history in Daniel refers to Persia (Dn 10:1), as do the prophecies of that book (8:20; 11:2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Postexilic Period; Medes, Media, Median.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERSIA, PERSIANS Country lying just to the east of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and covering virtually the same territory as present-day Iran. It was known in ancient times by various forms of Fars or Pars, which came down to us as Persia. It continued to be known as Persia until 1935, when its name was changed to Iran. The official modern language of the country is Persian, an Indo-European language written in Arabic characters. Preview • Geography and Climate • History • Persia and the Bible G...","summary_en":"PERSIA, PERSIANS Country lying just to the east of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and covering virtually the same territory as present-day Iran. It was known in ancient times by various forms of Fars or Pars, which came down to us as Persia. It continued to be known as Persia until 1935, when its name was changed to Iran. The official modern language of the country is Persian, an Indo-European language written in Arabic characters. Preview • Geography and Climate • History • Persia and the Bible G...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30939,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33655,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samaritans","title_en":"Samaritans","content_ro":"<h3>SAMARITANS<\/h3>\n<p>Schismatic group from the Jews. The group resided north of Judea and south of Galilee in hostile tension with its Jewish neighbors. Jesus’ attitude toward this despised group radically contrasted with contemporary sentiment.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origins of the Sect<\/p>\n<p>• Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews<\/p>\n<p>• Samaritan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus and the Samaritans<\/p>\n<p>• Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsoftheSect\">Origins of the Sect<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to determine precisely when the Samaritan sect arose and when the final break with Judaism occurred. The OT conception of the origin of the Samaritan sect is that they stemmed from repopulated foreign peoples whose worship of God was only a veneer for underlying idolatry. According to 2 Kings 17, the Samaritan sect arose from the exchange of peoples following Israel’s defeat by Assyria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Removing the Israelites from the land, the king of Assyria repopulated the area with conquered peoples from Babylon, Cuthah, and various other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans offer a vastly different interpretation of their origin. They claim descent from the Jewish tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (see Jn 4:12) and hold that the exile of Israelites in 722 <span>BC<\/span> by Assyria was neither full-scale nor permanent. To account for the mutual hostility that developed between their group and the Jews, the Samaritan version holds that the Jews were guilty of apostasy, setting up heretical sanctuaries during the time of Eli, rather than staying with the only holy place on Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans therefore considered themselves true Israelites in descent and worship.<\/p>\n<p>From Assyrian records of this period, an exchange of population is in fact affirmed for the northern kingdom, but apparently a total deportation was not carried out (see 2 Chr 34:9). This would suggest that there were two elements in the land: first, the native Israelite remnant not exiled; and second, the foreign exiles who were gradually won over to the faith of the native residents, although syncretism no doubt existed during the early period of assimilation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RelationsbetweentheSamaritansandtheJews\">Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews<\/p>\n<p>The history of relations between the Samaritans—situated on the north around Mt Gerizim (their holy mountain), Shechem, and Samaria—and Jewish populations in Judea and then later in Galilee is one of fluctuating tensions. The ancient tension between the northern and southern kingdoms was revived with the return of exiles to Jerusalem under the Persian ruler Cyrus’s edict (c. 538 <span>BC<\/span>). The entire southern area was at the time being governed from Samaria in the north by Sanballat, a native ruler of Palestine under Persian authority. The return of exiles to Jerusalem, particularly with their intentions of rebuilding the Jerusalem temple, posed an obvious political threat to his leadership in the north (Ezr 4:7-24; Neh 4:1-9).<\/p>\n<p>Opposition was at first politically motivated but became religious when sometime later, possibly in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, a rival temple was erected on Mt Gerizim. An example of Jewish hostility toward the Samaritans about this time comes from Ecclesiasticus 50:25-26 (written approximately 200 <span>BC<\/span>), where the Samaritans are placed below the Edomites and Philistines in esteem and are termed a “foolish people” (cf. Test. Levi 7:2).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish disregard for the Samaritans was increased by the Samaritans’ lack of resistance to Antiochus Epiphanes’ campaign (c. 167 <span>BC<\/span>) to promote Hellenistic worship in the area. While part of the Jewish community resisted the transforming of the Jerusalem temple to a temple for Zeus (1 Macc 1:62-64) and eventually followed the Maccabees in revolt (1 Macc 2:42-43), sources suggest that the Samaritans did not (see 1 Macc 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>Poor relations came to a climax during the brief period of Jewish independence under the Hasmoneans, when the Jewish ruler, John Hyrcanus, marched against Shechem, conquering and destroying the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim (c. 128 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Under Herod the Great, Samaria’s fortunes improved, although animosity still continued between the Samaritans and Jews in Judea and Galilee. Holding the Jerusalem temple to be a false cultic center, and excluded from the inner courts by the Jerusalem authorities, a group of Samaritans desecrated the Jerusalem temple in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 6 by spreading human bones within the temple porches and sanctuary during Passover. Hostility toward Galilean Jews traveling through Samaria on the way to Jerusalem for various feasts was also not uncommon (Lk 9:51-53).<\/p>\n<p>This animosity continued in Jesus’ day. Both groups excluded the other from their respective cultic centers, the Jerusalem temple and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans, for example, were forbidden access to the inner courts of the temple, and any offering they might give was considered as if it were from a Gentile. Thus, although probably more accurately defined as “schismatics,” it appears Samaritans were in practice treated as Gentiles. All marriage between the groups was therefore forbidden, and social relations were greatly restricted (Jn 4:9). With such proscribed separation, it is not surprising that any interaction between the two groups was strained. The mere term Samaritan was one of contempt on the lips of Jews (8:48), and among some scribes it possibly would not even be uttered (see the apparent circumlocution in Lk 10:37). The disciples’ reaction to the Samaritan refusal of lodging (9:51-55) is a good example of the animosity felt by Jews for Samaritans at the time.<\/p>\n<p>Although there is less evidence for similar attitudes from the Samaritan side, we can assume they existed. It is probable to speculate, therefore, that the Samaritan shunning of hospitality in Luke 9:51-55 was not uncommon toward other Jews whose “face was set toward Jerusalem.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SamaritanBeliefs\">Samaritan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>The main beliefs of the Samaritans demonstrate both the close affinities with and obvious divergences from mainstream Judaism. They held in common with Judaism a strong monotheistic faith in the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. In contrast, however, there was an elevating of Mt Gerizim in the north as the only holy place for sacrifice, based on several divergent passages in Deuteronomy and Exodus in the Samaritan text. Mt Gerizim came to be identified with the site of Abel’s first altar (Gn 4:4), the site of Noah’s sacrifice after the Flood (8:20), the meeting place of Abraham and Melchizedek (14:18), the site of Isaac’s intended sacrifice (ch 22), and many other associations.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans held only the first five biblical books (Pentateuch) to be inspired and based their dogma and practice exclusively on these books. Such a narrow canon not only determined the direction of Samaritan theology but further separated them from contemporary Jewish thought. Moses, for example, was more highly exalted by the Samaritans than by the Jews. He was considered not only the chief prophet but also, in later thought, was described as the choicest of men, preexisting from Creation, interceding with God for Israel, and being to man “the light of the world.” The messianic hope of Samaritan theology also reflects this narrow canon. A Messiah from the house of David could not be anticipated, as no evidence for such could be found in the Pentateuch. Rather, the Samaritans awaited a “prophet like Moses” based on Deuteronomy 18:15-18. This anticipated prophet was also designated the “Taheb,” the Restorer, for he would in the last days restore proper cultic worship on Mt Gerizim and bring the worship of the heathen to that site.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear, therefore, that it was primarily the claim of supremacy for Mt Gerizim that separated this group theologically and culturally from their Jewish neighbors.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusandtheSamaritans\">Jesus and the Samaritans<\/p>\n<p>The common Jewish perspective on Samaritans as being nearly Gentile was evidently held to some extent by Jesus as well. Jesus refers to the Samaritan leper as “this foreigner” (Lk 17:18) and prohibits his disciples, during their commissioning, from taking the message of the kingdom to either the Samaritans or the Gentiles (Mt 10:5).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the overwhelming evidence in the Gospels is that Jesus’ attitude toward the Samaritans differed radically from that of his Jewish contemporaries. When his disciples display the usual Jewish animosity in asking to have the “fire of judgment” rain down upon the inhospitable Samaritans, Jesus “rebuked them” (Lk 9:55). Moreover, he did not refuse to heal the Samaritan leper but honored him as the only one of the ten who remembered to give glory to God (17:11-19). So also in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37) Jesus clearly breaks through the traditional prejudices in portraying the despised Samaritan, not the respected Jewish priest or Levite, as the true neighbor to the man in need. Here as elsewhere, Jesus, in confronting his audience with God’s demand, breaks through traditional definitions of “righteous” and “outcast.”<\/p>\n<p>John 4:4-43 records not only the fascinating exchange between Jesus and the Samaritan woman but also Jesus’ subsequent two-day stay in the town of Sychar, a Samaritan city. Here we see Jesus not only risking ritual uncleanness by contact with the Samaritan woman at the well (vv 7-9) but also offering the gift of salvation to her (v 10) and the entire Samaritan town (vv 39-41). Through Jesus’ knowledge of her marital life (vv 16-18), the woman concludes he must be a “prophet.” Remembering that the Samaritans were expecting a “prophet like Moses” in the last days, it is possible that the woman was wondering if Jesus was their long-awaited prophetic Messiah (vv 19, 25-26). Jesus not only breaks through the rigid animosity of Jews toward Samaritans by doing the unthinkable in staying with this despised people, but he also accepts their faith in him as “Messiah” (v 26) and “Savior of the world” (v 42). Here, as with his association with the outcasts of Jewish society, Jesus redefines righteousness not according to descent or religious practice but according to faith in himself. In so doing, he shatters the racial and cultural distinctions of his day and lays the foundation for the gospel’s subsequent spread to the entire gentile world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SamariaintheMissionoftheEarlyChurch\">Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>In the great commission given prior to his ascension, Jesus told his disciples to take the gospel to Samaria (Acts 1:8). The missionary activity of the early church did indeed include this region. When, following the martyrdom of Stephen, many Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem (8:1), one such Christian, Philip, spread the gospel in the city of Samaria (v 5). The response was so great to the miracles performed that Peter and John (representing the apostles in Jerusalem) were sent to investigate and to confirm the presence of the Holy Spirit among them. Evidence from the second century <span>AD<\/span> suggests, however, that Christianity did not gain a strong foothold among the Samaritans. For the most part, the Samaritans retained their own religion. A small remnant of the Samaritan sect continues to exist to this day, living near Mt Gerizim (Shechem) and in various cities in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible, Manuscripts and Text of the (Old Testament); Samaria.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMARITANS<\/h3>\n<p>Schismatic group from the Jews. The group resided north of Judea and south of Galilee in hostile tension with its Jewish neighbors. Jesus’ attitude toward this despised group radically contrasted with contemporary sentiment.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Origins of the Sect<\/p>\n<p>• Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews<\/p>\n<p>• Samaritan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus and the Samaritans<\/p>\n<p>• Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsoftheSect\">Origins of the Sect<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to determine precisely when the Samaritan sect arose and when the final break with Judaism occurred. The OT conception of the origin of the Samaritan sect is that they stemmed from repopulated foreign peoples whose worship of God was only a veneer for underlying idolatry. According to 2 Kings 17, the Samaritan sect arose from the exchange of peoples following Israel’s defeat by Assyria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Removing the Israelites from the land, the king of Assyria repopulated the area with conquered peoples from Babylon, Cuthah, and various other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans offer a vastly different interpretation of their origin. They claim descent from the Jewish tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (see Jn 4:12) and hold that the exile of Israelites in 722 <span>BC<\/span> by Assyria was neither full-scale nor permanent. To account for the mutual hostility that developed between their group and the Jews, the Samaritan version holds that the Jews were guilty of apostasy, setting up heretical sanctuaries during the time of Eli, rather than staying with the only holy place on Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans therefore considered themselves true Israelites in descent and worship.<\/p>\n<p>From Assyrian records of this period, an exchange of population is in fact affirmed for the northern kingdom, but apparently a total deportation was not carried out (see 2 Chr 34:9). This would suggest that there were two elements in the land: first, the native Israelite remnant not exiled; and second, the foreign exiles who were gradually won over to the faith of the native residents, although syncretism no doubt existed during the early period of assimilation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RelationsbetweentheSamaritansandtheJews\">Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews<\/p>\n<p>The history of relations between the Samaritans—situated on the north around Mt Gerizim (their holy mountain), Shechem, and Samaria—and Jewish populations in Judea and then later in Galilee is one of fluctuating tensions. The ancient tension between the northern and southern kingdoms was revived with the return of exiles to Jerusalem under the Persian ruler Cyrus’s edict (c. 538 <span>BC<\/span>). The entire southern area was at the time being governed from Samaria in the north by Sanballat, a native ruler of Palestine under Persian authority. The return of exiles to Jerusalem, particularly with their intentions of rebuilding the Jerusalem temple, posed an obvious political threat to his leadership in the north (Ezr 4:7-24; Neh 4:1-9).<\/p>\n<p>Opposition was at first politically motivated but became religious when sometime later, possibly in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, a rival temple was erected on Mt Gerizim. An example of Jewish hostility toward the Samaritans about this time comes from Ecclesiasticus 50:25-26 (written approximately 200 <span>BC<\/span>), where the Samaritans are placed below the Edomites and Philistines in esteem and are termed a “foolish people” (cf. Test. Levi 7:2).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish disregard for the Samaritans was increased by the Samaritans’ lack of resistance to Antiochus Epiphanes’ campaign (c. 167 <span>BC<\/span>) to promote Hellenistic worship in the area. While part of the Jewish community resisted the transforming of the Jerusalem temple to a temple for Zeus (1 Macc 1:62-64) and eventually followed the Maccabees in revolt (1 Macc 2:42-43), sources suggest that the Samaritans did not (see 1 Macc 6:2).<\/p>\n<p>Poor relations came to a climax during the brief period of Jewish independence under the Hasmoneans, when the Jewish ruler, John Hyrcanus, marched against Shechem, conquering and destroying the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim (c. 128 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Under Herod the Great, Samaria’s fortunes improved, although animosity still continued between the Samaritans and Jews in Judea and Galilee. Holding the Jerusalem temple to be a false cultic center, and excluded from the inner courts by the Jerusalem authorities, a group of Samaritans desecrated the Jerusalem temple in approximately <span>AD<\/span> 6 by spreading human bones within the temple porches and sanctuary during Passover. Hostility toward Galilean Jews traveling through Samaria on the way to Jerusalem for various feasts was also not uncommon (Lk 9:51-53).<\/p>\n<p>This animosity continued in Jesus’ day. Both groups excluded the other from their respective cultic centers, the Jerusalem temple and the Samaritan temple on Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans, for example, were forbidden access to the inner courts of the temple, and any offering they might give was considered as if it were from a Gentile. Thus, although probably more accurately defined as “schismatics,” it appears Samaritans were in practice treated as Gentiles. All marriage between the groups was therefore forbidden, and social relations were greatly restricted (Jn 4:9). With such proscribed separation, it is not surprising that any interaction between the two groups was strained. The mere term Samaritan was one of contempt on the lips of Jews (8:48), and among some scribes it possibly would not even be uttered (see the apparent circumlocution in Lk 10:37). The disciples’ reaction to the Samaritan refusal of lodging (9:51-55) is a good example of the animosity felt by Jews for Samaritans at the time.<\/p>\n<p>Although there is less evidence for similar attitudes from the Samaritan side, we can assume they existed. It is probable to speculate, therefore, that the Samaritan shunning of hospitality in Luke 9:51-55 was not uncommon toward other Jews whose “face was set toward Jerusalem.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SamaritanBeliefs\">Samaritan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>The main beliefs of the Samaritans demonstrate both the close affinities with and obvious divergences from mainstream Judaism. They held in common with Judaism a strong monotheistic faith in the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. In contrast, however, there was an elevating of Mt Gerizim in the north as the only holy place for sacrifice, based on several divergent passages in Deuteronomy and Exodus in the Samaritan text. Mt Gerizim came to be identified with the site of Abel’s first altar (Gn 4:4), the site of Noah’s sacrifice after the Flood (8:20), the meeting place of Abraham and Melchizedek (14:18), the site of Isaac’s intended sacrifice (ch 22), and many other associations.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritans held only the first five biblical books (Pentateuch) to be inspired and based their dogma and practice exclusively on these books. Such a narrow canon not only determined the direction of Samaritan theology but further separated them from contemporary Jewish thought. Moses, for example, was more highly exalted by the Samaritans than by the Jews. He was considered not only the chief prophet but also, in later thought, was described as the choicest of men, preexisting from Creation, interceding with God for Israel, and being to man “the light of the world.” The messianic hope of Samaritan theology also reflects this narrow canon. A Messiah from the house of David could not be anticipated, as no evidence for such could be found in the Pentateuch. Rather, the Samaritans awaited a “prophet like Moses” based on Deuteronomy 18:15-18. This anticipated prophet was also designated the “Taheb,” the Restorer, for he would in the last days restore proper cultic worship on Mt Gerizim and bring the worship of the heathen to that site.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear, therefore, that it was primarily the claim of supremacy for Mt Gerizim that separated this group theologically and culturally from their Jewish neighbors.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusandtheSamaritans\">Jesus and the Samaritans<\/p>\n<p>The common Jewish perspective on Samaritans as being nearly Gentile was evidently held to some extent by Jesus as well. Jesus refers to the Samaritan leper as “this foreigner” (Lk 17:18) and prohibits his disciples, during their commissioning, from taking the message of the kingdom to either the Samaritans or the Gentiles (Mt 10:5).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the overwhelming evidence in the Gospels is that Jesus’ attitude toward the Samaritans differed radically from that of his Jewish contemporaries. When his disciples display the usual Jewish animosity in asking to have the “fire of judgment” rain down upon the inhospitable Samaritans, Jesus “rebuked them” (Lk 9:55). Moreover, he did not refuse to heal the Samaritan leper but honored him as the only one of the ten who remembered to give glory to God (17:11-19). So also in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37) Jesus clearly breaks through the traditional prejudices in portraying the despised Samaritan, not the respected Jewish priest or Levite, as the true neighbor to the man in need. Here as elsewhere, Jesus, in confronting his audience with God’s demand, breaks through traditional definitions of “righteous” and “outcast.”<\/p>\n<p>John 4:4-43 records not only the fascinating exchange between Jesus and the Samaritan woman but also Jesus’ subsequent two-day stay in the town of Sychar, a Samaritan city. Here we see Jesus not only risking ritual uncleanness by contact with the Samaritan woman at the well (vv 7-9) but also offering the gift of salvation to her (v 10) and the entire Samaritan town (vv 39-41). Through Jesus’ knowledge of her marital life (vv 16-18), the woman concludes he must be a “prophet.” Remembering that the Samaritans were expecting a “prophet like Moses” in the last days, it is possible that the woman was wondering if Jesus was their long-awaited prophetic Messiah (vv 19, 25-26). Jesus not only breaks through the rigid animosity of Jews toward Samaritans by doing the unthinkable in staying with this despised people, but he also accepts their faith in him as “Messiah” (v 26) and “Savior of the world” (v 42). Here, as with his association with the outcasts of Jewish society, Jesus redefines righteousness not according to descent or religious practice but according to faith in himself. In so doing, he shatters the racial and cultural distinctions of his day and lays the foundation for the gospel’s subsequent spread to the entire gentile world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SamariaintheMissionoftheEarlyChurch\">Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>In the great commission given prior to his ascension, Jesus told his disciples to take the gospel to Samaria (Acts 1:8). The missionary activity of the early church did indeed include this region. When, following the martyrdom of Stephen, many Christians were forced to leave Jerusalem (8:1), one such Christian, Philip, spread the gospel in the city of Samaria (v 5). The response was so great to the miracles performed that Peter and John (representing the apostles in Jerusalem) were sent to investigate and to confirm the presence of the Holy Spirit among them. Evidence from the second century <span>AD<\/span> suggests, however, that Christianity did not gain a strong foothold among the Samaritans. For the most part, the Samaritans retained their own religion. A small remnant of the Samaritan sect continues to exist to this day, living near Mt Gerizim (Shechem) and in various cities in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bible, Manuscripts and Text of the (Old Testament); Samaria.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMARITANS Schismatic group from the Jews. The group resided north of Judea and south of Galilee in hostile tension with its Jewish neighbors. Jesus’ attitude toward this despised group radically contrasted with contemporary sentiment. Preview • Origins of the Sect • Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews • Samaritan Beliefs • Jesus and the Samaritans • Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church Origins of the Sect It is difficult to determine precisely when the Samaritan sect arose an...","summary_en":"SAMARITANS Schismatic group from the Jews. The group resided north of Judea and south of Galilee in hostile tension with its Jewish neighbors. Jesus’ attitude toward this despised group radically contrasted with contemporary sentiment. Preview • Origins of the Sect • Relations between the Samaritans and the Jews • Samaritan Beliefs • Jesus and the Samaritans • Samaria in the Mission of the Early Church Origins of the Sect It is difficult to determine precisely when the Samaritan sect arose an...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33852,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sanballat","title_en":"Sanballat","content_ro":"<h3>SANBALLAT<\/h3>\n<p>Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Nehemiah’s determination to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem was in essence an assertion of Judean independence from Sanballat and Samaritan control.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SANBALLAT<\/h3>\n<p>Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. Nehemiah’s determination to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem was in essence an assertion of Judean independence from Sanballat and Samaritan control.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SANBALLAT Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 BC. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Bab...","summary_en":"SANBALLAT Leading political official of Samaria residing at Beth-horon in Ephraim. In a letter from Elephantine of Egypt, Sanballat was named as the governor of Samaria in 407 BC. Sanballat, along with Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the Arab, were adversaries of Nehemiah. They tried to prevent him from rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1, 7; 6:1-14; 13:28). The Judean province probably had been included under Samaritan rule since its defeat by Bab...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62178,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62196,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66298,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89804,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89822,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93924,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117430,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117448,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121550,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145056,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145074,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149176,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":19772,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jew","title_en":"Jew","content_ro":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEW<\/h3>\n<p>Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century <span>BC<\/span>; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual citizen had the right to freedom from slavery uses the term “Jew.” In Jeremiah 52:28 it is poignantly used in giving the number of deported citizens.<\/p>\n<p>Once the people were in exile, the term’s national meaning was expanded with a religious one. The Jews were different from surrounding peoples in that they preserved a living religious tradition of one true God. A Jewish-Gentile polarization developed. Thus in Daniel 3:8-12 certain Jews are accused of deviating from otherwise acceptable Babylonian religious practices. The book of Esther is concerned with the problem of Jewish identity and survival in a hostile alien environment. Esther 8:17 speaks of Gentiles declaring themselves Jews in the religious sense of becoming proselytes.<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the strongly religious meaning of “Jew” is expressed in the prophecy of Zechariah 8:23 that the Jew would be courted by Gentiles because God was with him. In Ezra 4:12 the term “Jews” is the national designation of the returned exiles, as it is in the book of Nehemiah (e.g., Neh 1:2; 4:2). In Nehemiah 13:24 there is a consciousness of the social exclusiveness of the Jews: on religious grounds, marriage to foreigners is deplored.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “Jew” continues to have the same national and\/or religious meaning. Culturally, Jews have religious and other customs that NT documents addressed to Gentiles find it necessary to explain (Mk 7:3; Jn 5:1; 19:40). Jews are contrasted with Gentiles (Acts 11:19), Samaritans (Jn 4:9, 22), and proselytes (Acts 2:10). Jewish Christians can be called “Jews” (Gal 2:13), but there is an increasing stress on the religious distinctions between Jew and Christian. In Romans 2:17-29 Paul gives an interesting theological analysis of the term “Jew.” He is at pains to emphasize that the true meaning of the word lies not in outward religious profession but in an inward attitude to God. Paul was doubtless thinking of the inadequacy of his own life as a Jew before he was converted to the Christian faith (cf. Phil 3:3-6). His mention of “praise” in Romans 2:29 is the climax of the passage. It is a forceful play on words: in Hebrew, Judah means praise (Gn 29:35; cf. 49:8).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul is here moving in the direction of regarding Christianity as the true heir of the faith of the OT. Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 express similar sentiments: to be truly a Jew is much more than a matter of birth and synagogue observance. Underlying these passages in both Revelation and Romans is obviously the issue of the messianic claims of Jesus (cf. Rom 9:3-5; 10:1-4). The NT bears sad testimony to the opposition of Jews to the Christian message. The gospel proved a cause of offense to the Jews (1 Cor 1:23). Paul himself, despite his claim of impeccable Jewish credentials (Acts 26:4-7), found himself the object of bitter Jewish attacks (21:11; 23:12, 27). Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 describe the Jews’ opposition as satanic: they were carrying out the work of God’s adversary, Satan.<\/p>\n<p>These negative overtones are especially attached to the use of the word “Jew” in John’s Gospel. It is found some 70 times, versus about five or six instances in each of the synoptic Gospels. Some passages, such as those already cited, have no associations of hostility. But in most cases the fourth Gospel uses “Jews” in the sense of the religious authorities, especially those in Jerusalem, who were hostile to Jesus (see, e.g., Jn 5:18; 9:18; 11:8; 18:36). It is noteworthy that in 9:22 the parents of the blind man, clearly Jews themselves, are said, literally, to fear the investigating Jews. In 18:14 “Jews” stands for the chief priests and Pharisees of 18:3. It must be emphasized that the author, who was obviously a Jew himself, was not expressing an anti-Semitic viewpoint as such. He condemned not race or people but those who opposed Jesus. He gladly acknowledged that some Jews put their faith in Jesus (8:31; 11:45: 12:11). Nathanael is featured as a type of the Christian Jew, a true Israelite “in whom is no guile” (1:47; cf. v 31; see Gn 27:35; 32:28).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Judaism; Judaizers; Pharisees; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","summary_en":"JEW Judean, belonging to Judah. The short form of the English word was developed from the French. The underlying Hebrew word is used first in 2 Kings 16:6 as a national term, meaning citizens of Judah. It came into general use in the period of Jeremiah just before the exile (late sixth century BC; see Jer 32:12). It reflects a growing sense of national identity among foreign nations in an international world. In Jeremiah 34:9, a statement concerning the national principle that an individual c...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","summary_en":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75777,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","summary_en":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103403,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","summary_en":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131029,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:2<\/strong> The Persians had stationed <em>Samarian army officers<\/em> in Jerusalem to keep peace. • <em>poor, feeble Jews:<\/em> Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • <em>Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices?<\/em> Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • <em>rubbish . . . charred:<\/em> When fire destroyed Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), it heated the stones, causing some to crack and crumble. The people used these stones to restore the walls.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","summary_en":"4:2 The Persians had stationed Samarian army officers in Jerusalem to keep peace. • poor, feeble Jews: Sanballat’s mockery had an element of truth: The Jews were not rich, powerful, or many in number. However, Sanballat failed to realize the strength of the God whom the Jews served. • Do they think . . . by just offering a few sacrifices? Sanballat might have been mocking a sudden increase in sacrifices at the Temple as the Israelites dedicated their work to the Lord. • rubbish . . . charred:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":1905,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":31135,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prayer","title_en":"Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","summary_en":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","summary_en":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","summary_en":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103404,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","summary_en":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131030,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","summary_en":"4:4 Nehemiah prayed intensely for God to stop those who opposed God’s will. Nehemiah’s practice was to cry out to God in times of need (2:4; 5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62144,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62268,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89770,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89894,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117396,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117520,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145022,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145146,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":48153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","summary_en":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","summary_en":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103405,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","summary_en":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131031,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> <em>Do not ignore their guilt:<\/em> See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","summary_en":"4:5 Do not ignore their guilt: See also “Prayers for Vengeance” Theme Note.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63308,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance","title_en":"Prayers for Vengeance","content_ro":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","summary_en":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90934,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance","title_en":"Prayers for Vengeance","content_ro":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","summary_en":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118560,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance","title_en":"Prayers for Vengeance","content_ro":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","summary_en":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146186,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance","title_en":"Prayers for Vengeance","content_ro":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Prayers for Vengeance<\/h3>\n<p>The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay?<\/p>\n<p>These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The wicked are subversive, corrupt, and thoroughly committed to evil; they live in opposition to God and to everything that God does. The wicked shake the foundations of ethics, of society, and of God’s kingdom. The psalmists argued that evil is inconsistent with God’s nature and that the removal of evil is the only way for his kingdom to thrive. However, the poets of Israel did not simply invoke God’s judgment on anyone with whom they could not get along. Instead, the psalmists were guided by God’s standards of justice and righteousness, to which God holds all humans accountable.<\/p>\n<p>The psalmists were intimately acquainted with grief. They had suffered and been oppressed and marginalized by bullies, leaders, and kings from inside and outside of Israel. Their prayers were full of faith and hope, asking how long the Lord would tolerate their suffering and confessing that the Lord alone could rescue them from evil. They expressed deep longing for his redemption. By the principle of retribution, they asked the Lord to inflict upon the wicked the suffering that they had endured (Ps 5:10; 6:10; 7:9; 9:19-20; 28:4; 56:7; 104:35; 137:7-9; 139:19). Through these prayers for justice and vindication, the godly may rest in peace as they await God’s rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Do we truly see evil as evil, or do we perceive it merely as an inconvenience? Prayers for the end of evil are appropriate as long as we recognize God as arbiter, judge, and executor. The prayer for the coming of God’s Kingdom implies the removal of evil. But now the cruelty inflicted on the wicked has been transformed through the cruel crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This act of God informs how we pray for those who oppose us. Jesus will indeed judge and bring an ultimate end to evil (see Rev 19:11-21), but while Christians await that final judgment, they are to love as Christ loved (John 13:34), pray for their enemies, and forgive them (Matt 5:38-48; Col 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 24:22; Neh 4:5; Pss 3:7; 9:19-20; 10:15; 12:3; 41:10; 55:15; 69:22-28; 79:6; 109:6-20; 110:5-6; 137:1-9; Isa 61:2; Jer 11:20-23; 18:19-23; 51:35; Lam 1:22; 3:64-66; Acts 1:20; Rom 11:9-10; Rev 6:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","summary_en":"Prayers for Vengeance The psalmists sometimes asked the Lord to execute vengeance against their adversaries. It was not unusual for a psalmist to pray for the violent destruction of their enemies as a manifestation of God’s justice. How can this kind of prayer be okay? These prayers for the destruction of the wicked arose out of concern for justice and righteousness and out of confidence in God. Divine justice is defined in Psalm 1:6: The Lord loves the righteous and destroys the wicked. The ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":36820,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Taxation Tax","title_en":"Taxation Tax","content_ro":"<h3>TAX, TAXATION<\/h3>\n<p>Amount of money or goods that was extracted by the powerful nations from those whom they subjected. It commonly consisted of gold, silver, animals, produce, or forced labor. Taxes were also levied on the people both by their ruler and by the priesthood to pay for the maintenance of the temple. The term “tribute” is first used in the <span>kjv<\/span> in Genesis 49:15 (<span>nlt<\/span> “forced labor”). In Numbers 31:28 the spoils of battle were divided up to include a tribute or levy for the priesthood. For the Hebrews the temple tribute was originally a voluntary offering to the Lord (Dt 16:10) but later became a prescribed tax (Mt 17:24).<\/p>\n<p>Even in 2500 <span>BC<\/span> in the city of Lagash, taxes were imposed on most facets of life, from the means of earning a livelihood, to marriage, divorce, and death. Like many ancient peoples, the Sumerians believed that the land belonged to the god and his representative the king, and that therefore a rent or levy was payable to the owner.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Joseph exacted a burdensome 20-percent tax in grain during the seven years of plenty, which alleviated the food shortages during the subsequent seven years of famine (Gn 41:25–42:5). The tax on the crops was facilitated because in Egypt the ownership of the land was vested in the ruler.<\/p>\n<p>Warrior kings, such as David, were able to maintain a healthy treasury without taxing their own people. The Canaanites and neighboring conquered peoples contributed great wealth to the treasury (2 Sm 8:6-14; 1 Chr 27:25-31), one list of which included silver, gold, bronze, 1,700 horsemen, and 20,000 foot soldiers. Forced labor was often required by David and his successors of aliens who remained within the boundaries of the Israelite kingdom (Jos 16:10; 17:13; Jgs 1:28).<\/p>\n<p>Israel was probably first taxed during Solomon’s reign. In this more stable period, income came from tribute but not from booty. To maintain the grandeur of the court and the extensive building program, Solomon divided Israel into 12 areas, each under an officer, each of whom provided food and support for the king and his household for one month per year (1 Kgs 4:7). Solomon also derived considerable income from levying custom duties on trading caravans that passed regularly through his kingdom. In addition to all of this, both foreigners and native Israelites were subject to forced labor for major building projects, especially for the temple (1 Kgs 5:13; 9:20-21; 2 Chr 8:7-8). Handles from ten-gallon (37.9-liter) jars have been excavated, bearing a Hebrew stamp “to the king,” indicating that they formed part of a levy (2 Chr 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat was equally successful in taxing the people at home (2 Chr 17:5) and maintaining the tribute from abroad, including silver and gold from the Philistines and 7,700 rams and 7,700 he-goats from the Arabs (2 Chr 17:11-12). As the power of the surrounding empires increased, Judah found itself forced to pay tribute. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, required 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold, which necessitated the removal of the gold from the temple doors (2 Kgs 18:14-16). Approximately a century later, Pharaoh Neco required 100 talents of silver and a talent of gold from Judah (23:33), and shortly thereafter Nebuchadnezzar removed all the treasure from the temple and the royal palace, together with 10,000 captives, all the craftsmen, and 1,000 smiths, leaving few in Jerusalem except the poor (24:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>A definite, regular, organized tax system was instituted by the Persians, whose satraps, ruling each province, were required to make payment of fixed sums into the royal treasury (Est 10:1). Tax exemption was introduced by Artaxerxes I, who stated that levies should not be collected from priests, Levites, or any others occupied in any way with the service of the temple (Ezr 7:24). An additional tax was required for the maintenance of the governor’s household; it consisted of food, wine, and 40 shekels of silver (Neh 5:14-15). As governor, Nehemiah did not claim this allowance of food because he considered the taxes already burdensome, causing the mortgaging of fields, vineyards, and houses “for the king’s tax.” Simultaneously, a levy was imposed upon the Jews for the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (4:6). Darius was politically astute enough to encourage the rebuilding of the temple and to allow the Jews to use some of the royal tax money for this purpose (Ezr 6:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Under the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and subsequently the Romans, there was a change in the collection of taxes, whereby the office of tax collector was sold to the highest bidder, who in turn extracted the maximum payment from the people and built up his own wealth from the surplus generated. At times, the Jews were paying tithes for the maintenance of the temple, in addition to taxes of as much as one-third of the grain and half of the fruit grown. Excise, sales, and poll taxes were also collected.<\/p>\n<p>After the extortionate level of tax imposed by Pompey, Julius Caesar reduced the amount paid by the Jews and exempted them from all payment in the sabbatical year. The provinces were considered booty by the Romans and were plundered physically by the army and financially by the tax collectors. In imperial times there was greater regulation of the tax system. An income tax was imposed on produce from the field and from artisans and tradesmen, as well as a poll tax, port duties, sales taxes, an auction tax, and an estate duty.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the taxes paid to foreign powers, all Jews worldwide who were 20 years of age and older (Ex 30:11-16) were assessed a half-shekel per person annually as a tax to support the temple in Jerusalem (Mt 17:24), a tax that continued to be levied even after the destruction of the temple in <span>AD<\/span> 70. Jesus was questioned on the validity of this tax (v 25) as well as the lawfulness of payment of taxes to Rome (Mt 22:17; Mk 12:14-15; Lk 20:22). Despite Jesus’ famous reply—“render to Caesar that which is Caesar’s and to God that which is God’s” (Mt 22:21; Mk 12:17; Lk 20:25)—he was still accused before Pilate of forbidding the Jews to give taxes to Caesar (Lk 23:2). The early church also reinforced the legality of taxation as a legitimate responsibility required of all people (Rom 13:5-7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Tax Collector.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TAX, TAXATION<\/h3>\n<p>Amount of money or goods that was extracted by the powerful nations from those whom they subjected. It commonly consisted of gold, silver, animals, produce, or forced labor. Taxes were also levied on the people both by their ruler and by the priesthood to pay for the maintenance of the temple. The term “tribute” is first used in the <span>kjv<\/span> in Genesis 49:15 (<span>nlt<\/span> “forced labor”). In Numbers 31:28 the spoils of battle were divided up to include a tribute or levy for the priesthood. For the Hebrews the temple tribute was originally a voluntary offering to the Lord (Dt 16:10) but later became a prescribed tax (Mt 17:24).<\/p>\n<p>Even in 2500 <span>BC<\/span> in the city of Lagash, taxes were imposed on most facets of life, from the means of earning a livelihood, to marriage, divorce, and death. Like many ancient peoples, the Sumerians believed that the land belonged to the god and his representative the king, and that therefore a rent or levy was payable to the owner.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Joseph exacted a burdensome 20-percent tax in grain during the seven years of plenty, which alleviated the food shortages during the subsequent seven years of famine (Gn 41:25–42:5). The tax on the crops was facilitated because in Egypt the ownership of the land was vested in the ruler.<\/p>\n<p>Warrior kings, such as David, were able to maintain a healthy treasury without taxing their own people. The Canaanites and neighboring conquered peoples contributed great wealth to the treasury (2 Sm 8:6-14; 1 Chr 27:25-31), one list of which included silver, gold, bronze, 1,700 horsemen, and 20,000 foot soldiers. Forced labor was often required by David and his successors of aliens who remained within the boundaries of the Israelite kingdom (Jos 16:10; 17:13; Jgs 1:28).<\/p>\n<p>Israel was probably first taxed during Solomon’s reign. In this more stable period, income came from tribute but not from booty. To maintain the grandeur of the court and the extensive building program, Solomon divided Israel into 12 areas, each under an officer, each of whom provided food and support for the king and his household for one month per year (1 Kgs 4:7). Solomon also derived considerable income from levying custom duties on trading caravans that passed regularly through his kingdom. In addition to all of this, both foreigners and native Israelites were subject to forced labor for major building projects, especially for the temple (1 Kgs 5:13; 9:20-21; 2 Chr 8:7-8). Handles from ten-gallon (37.9-liter) jars have been excavated, bearing a Hebrew stamp “to the king,” indicating that they formed part of a levy (2 Chr 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat was equally successful in taxing the people at home (2 Chr 17:5) and maintaining the tribute from abroad, including silver and gold from the Philistines and 7,700 rams and 7,700 he-goats from the Arabs (2 Chr 17:11-12). As the power of the surrounding empires increased, Judah found itself forced to pay tribute. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, required 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold, which necessitated the removal of the gold from the temple doors (2 Kgs 18:14-16). Approximately a century later, Pharaoh Neco required 100 talents of silver and a talent of gold from Judah (23:33), and shortly thereafter Nebuchadnezzar removed all the treasure from the temple and the royal palace, together with 10,000 captives, all the craftsmen, and 1,000 smiths, leaving few in Jerusalem except the poor (24:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>A definite, regular, organized tax system was instituted by the Persians, whose satraps, ruling each province, were required to make payment of fixed sums into the royal treasury (Est 10:1). Tax exemption was introduced by Artaxerxes I, who stated that levies should not be collected from priests, Levites, or any others occupied in any way with the service of the temple (Ezr 7:24). An additional tax was required for the maintenance of the governor’s household; it consisted of food, wine, and 40 shekels of silver (Neh 5:14-15). As governor, Nehemiah did not claim this allowance of food because he considered the taxes already burdensome, causing the mortgaging of fields, vineyards, and houses “for the king’s tax.” Simultaneously, a levy was imposed upon the Jews for the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (4:6). Darius was politically astute enough to encourage the rebuilding of the temple and to allow the Jews to use some of the royal tax money for this purpose (Ezr 6:7-10).<\/p>\n<p>Under the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and subsequently the Romans, there was a change in the collection of taxes, whereby the office of tax collector was sold to the highest bidder, who in turn extracted the maximum payment from the people and built up his own wealth from the surplus generated. At times, the Jews were paying tithes for the maintenance of the temple, in addition to taxes of as much as one-third of the grain and half of the fruit grown. Excise, sales, and poll taxes were also collected.<\/p>\n<p>After the extortionate level of tax imposed by Pompey, Julius Caesar reduced the amount paid by the Jews and exempted them from all payment in the sabbatical year. The provinces were considered booty by the Romans and were plundered physically by the army and financially by the tax collectors. In imperial times there was greater regulation of the tax system. An income tax was imposed on produce from the field and from artisans and tradesmen, as well as a poll tax, port duties, sales taxes, an auction tax, and an estate duty.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the taxes paid to foreign powers, all Jews worldwide who were 20 years of age and older (Ex 30:11-16) were assessed a half-shekel per person annually as a tax to support the temple in Jerusalem (Mt 17:24), a tax that continued to be levied even after the destruction of the temple in <span>AD<\/span> 70. Jesus was questioned on the validity of this tax (v 25) as well as the lawfulness of payment of taxes to Rome (Mt 22:17; Mk 12:14-15; Lk 20:22). Despite Jesus’ famous reply—“render to Caesar that which is Caesar’s and to God that which is God’s” (Mt 22:21; Mk 12:17; Lk 20:25)—he was still accused before Pilate of forbidding the Jews to give taxes to Caesar (Lk 23:2). The early church also reinforced the legality of taxation as a legitimate responsibility required of all people (Rom 13:5-7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Tax Collector.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TAX, TAXATION Amount of money or goods that was extracted by the powerful nations from those whom they subjected. It commonly consisted of gold, silver, animals, produce, or forced labor. Taxes were also levied on the people both by their ruler and by the priesthood to pay for the maintenance of the temple. The term “tribute” is first used in the kjv in Genesis 49:15 (nlt “forced labor”). In Numbers 31:28 the spoils of battle were divided up to include a tribute or levy for the priesthood. Fo...","summary_en":"TAX, TAXATION Amount of money or goods that was extracted by the powerful nations from those whom they subjected. It commonly consisted of gold, silver, animals, produce, or forced labor. Taxes were also levied on the people both by their ruler and by the priesthood to pay for the maintenance of the temple. The term “tribute” is first used in the kjv in Genesis 49:15 (nlt “forced labor”). In Numbers 31:28 the spoils of battle were divided up to include a tribute or levy for the priesthood. Fo...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","summary_en":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","summary_en":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103406,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","summary_en":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131032,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:6<\/strong> <em>half its height:<\/em> Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","summary_en":"4:6 half its height: Perhaps 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 meters) tall, since some scholars speculate that the original wall was 20–24 feet (6.0–7.3 meters) high.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62199,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89825,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117451,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145077,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":2912,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","title_en":"Ashdod, Ashdodite, Ashdothite*","content_ro":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century <span>BC<\/span>. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unconquered, it was assigned to Judah’s tribe (Jos 15:46-47). Its people were referred to as Ashdodites (Jos 13:4; Neh 4:7). During the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the coast of Palestine was invaded by the Sea Peoples, a group of tribes from the Aegean area. Ashdod was destroyed and reoccupied by one of these peoples, the Philistines. Excavations at Ashdod have uncovered three levels of Philistine occupation and have furnished a glimpse of the material culture of these traditional enemies of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In the days of Eli the priest, the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant and placed it first in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod, then in Gath and Ekron (1 Sm 5). A plague broke out wherever the ark went, so the Philistine rulers returned it with an offering of gold (1 Sm 6:1-18). Although David and Solomon controlled Ashdod, it was not until Uzziah came to the throne of the kingdom of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) that Ashdod was actually conquered (2 Chr 26:6). After a while, Judah’s military power waned, and the city became independent again. Ashdod resisted Assyrian encroachments until Sargon II attacked and destroyed it in 711 <span>BC<\/span>, a fact illumined by three fragments of a basalt stele of Sargon found at Ashdod in 1963. Those events led Isaiah to warn Judah against supporting Ashdod or counting on Egypt or Ethiopia to oppose the Assyrians (Is 20). Excavations at Ashdod show evidence of the destruction by both Uzziah and Sargon II.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod remained under Assyrian control until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I (664–609 <span>BC<\/span>) took the city after a siege of 29 years (perhaps the longest in history). Later, probably at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (586 <span>BC<\/span>), Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashdod and took its king to his court. Jeremiah and Zephaniah had prophesied about the people remaining in Ashdod (Jer 25:20; Zep 2:4). That remnant later opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem, and its women married Jewish husbands (Neh 4:7; 13:23-24). Earlier, the prophet Zechariah had predicted further desolation for Ashdod (Zec 9:6).<\/p>\n<p>During Maccabean times the city, then called Azotus, was attacked and plundered by both Judas and Jonathan Maccabeus because of its idolatry (1 Macc 4:12-15; 5:68; 10:77-85; 11:4). Freed by Pompey in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, Ashdod became part of the Roman province of Syria. Later Herod the Great willed the city to his sister Salome. Philip the evangelist preached the message of Christ in Azotus (Acts 8:40). The early Christian historian Eusebius regarded it as an important town in the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, and Christian bishops were located there from the fourth through the sixth centuries. During the Middle Ages, Ashdod, or Azotus, began to decline, and now is only a small village called Esdud.<\/p>\n<p>Ashdod was located about three miles (4.8 kilometers) inland and therefore had a port, separated from the city proper, called Ashdod Yam, or Ashdod-on-the-Sea. That coastal town in later years became larger than the inland city. Excavations in the area of the seaport have uncovered remains of Canaanite, Israelite, and Hellenistic occupation. One interesting find was the remains of a Hellenistic dye operation. A purple dye made from the murex shell was used to dye cloth worn by royalty and the wealthy. The site of the port continued to be occupied through the Arabic period, and today Israel has built a port near the site of ancient Ashdod Yam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","summary_en":"ASHDOD, ASHDODITE, ASHDOTHITE* One of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”) along with Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was located midway between Joppa and Gaza, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the coast. The ancient tell has been excavated extensively since 1962. The earliest level found was Canaanite, dating to the 17th century BC. When the Israelites arrived in the Promised Land, the city was inhabited by the giant Anakim (Jos 11:21-22). Though unc...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","summary_en":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","summary_en":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103407,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","summary_en":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131033,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> Israel’s enemies from the north (<em>Sanballat<\/em>), the south (<em>Arabs<\/em>), the east (<em>Ammonites<\/em>), and the west (<em>Ashdodites<\/em>) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","summary_en":"4:7 Israel’s enemies from the north (Sanballat), the south (Arabs), the east (Ammonites), and the west (Ashdodites) were enraged by the speed and success of Jerusalem’s reconstruction, which threatened these opponents’ political power in the region.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62197,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89823,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117449,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145075,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":30941,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37483,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":48156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","summary_en":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","summary_en":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103408,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","summary_en":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131034,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:9<\/strong> <em>we prayed . . . and guarded:<\/em> This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","summary_en":"4:9 we prayed . . . and guarded: This wise approach to the threat involved both relying on God and doing what was needed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62145,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62269,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89771,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89895,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117397,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117521,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145023,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145147,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":30942,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":48157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","summary_en":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","summary_en":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103409,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","summary_en":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131035,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s <em>enemies<\/em> was having a negative effect on morale.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","summary_en":"4:11 The relentless psychological attack of Israel’s enemies was having a negative effect on morale.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62198,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89824,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117450,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145076,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Dealing with Conflict","title_en":"Dealing with Conflict","content_ro":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Dealing with Conflict<\/h3>\n<p>God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., Exod 17:1-4). The book of Nehemiah provides perhaps the most comprehensive example of how a godly person can respond to conflict.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah faced both external and internal opposition to all that God was directing him to do. External opposition came from foreigners such as Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah. They fiercely opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls and mocked Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 2:10, 2:19; 4:1-3). The opposition gradually grew to include other Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod, who plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11). To meet this opposition, Nehemiah posted guards, prayed for God’s help, developed an emergency warning system, and kept working (4:6-23). Israel’s frustrated enemies made several attempts to disgrace or kill Nehemiah (6:1-14). However, Nehemiah had the wisdom to avoid or frustrate their plots while focusing on the task God had given him.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah also faced internal problems. Wealthy Jews were mistreating the poor by charging high interest (5:1-13). Jews had married foreigners who worshiped other gods (13:23-30). Many were not tithing or keeping the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Finally, he had to oppose the priest Eliashib, who had allowed Tobiah to use one of the Temple storerooms (13:4-9). Confronting these problems required a firm commitment to the principles explained in Scripture, boldness in insisting that people follow these divine instructions, and compassion in restoring people to fellowship after the confrontation.<\/p>\n<p>In each of these cases, Nehemiah courageously followed the example of earlier leaders such as Moses, who opposed the worship of the gold calf (Exod 32); Samuel, who opposed those involved with Baal worship (1 Sam 7:3-8); Nathan, who opposed David’s sins (2 Sam 12:1-14); and Jehoshaphat, who trusted in God to defeat a much stronger enemy (2 Chr 20:1-37). Like these earlier men of God, Nehemiah took a stand for what was right instead of letting those for whom he was responsible go their own ways. He refused to be discouraged or intimidated by internal difficulties or external threats against him. He consistently depended on God for wisdom and for blessing on his work.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and Paul both outlined some strategies for dealing with internal conflict (Matt 5:23-26; 18:15-17; 1 Cor 6:1-8; 10:23-33) and external conflict (Matt 5:43-47; Rom 12:14-21). Unfortunately, the actions of believers, no matter how upstanding, will sometimes be met with continued—or even increased—opposition. Nonetheless, we are called to handle opposition in a way similar to Nehemiah—with wisdom, patience, prayer, and resolve.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 13:5-13; 26:12-35; Exod 32:1-35; 1 Sam 7:3-8; 2 Sam 12:1-31; 19:41-43; 2 Chr 20:1-37; 34:3-7; Neh 2:19-20; 4:1-23; 5:1-13; 6:1-14; 13:4-28; Ps 140:1-2; Prov 13:10; 17:14, 19; 25:8; 26:17, 21; 29:22; Hab 1:3; Acts 23:6-11; 2 Cor 7:5-6; Eph 6:10-18; Phil 2:3; 1 Tim 6:4; 2 Tim 2:14, 23-26; Titus 2:15; Jas 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","summary_en":"Dealing with Conflict God’s people often have to deal with conflict, either from those outside the community who are opposed to God and his purposes or from those inside the community who cause strife and division. Dealing with conflict requires a great deal of wisdom and tact, as even the smallest conflicts can turn disastrous. Paul faced opposition from government (Acts 16:22-24) and community leaders (Acts 19:23-34). Moses dealt with the grumbling and dissatisfied people of Israel (e.g., E...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":27707,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Numerology*, Numbers","title_en":"and Numerology*, Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","summary_en":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:12","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","summary_en":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:12","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","summary_en":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103410,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:12","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","summary_en":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131036,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:12","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:12<\/strong> <em>They will come from all directions and attack us!<\/em> Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","summary_en":"4:12 They will come from all directions and attack us! Jews from the surrounding areas might have been exhorting the people working in Jerusalem to return to their villages to avoid being killed in an attack.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":48159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","summary_en":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","summary_en":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103411,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","summary_en":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131037,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> Nehemiah countered by positioning <em>armed guards<\/em> near the most vulnerable <em>parts of the wall<\/em>. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","summary_en":"4:13 Nehemiah countered by positioning armed guards near the most vulnerable parts of the wall. He also made sure opponents outside the wall could see the forces ready to defend the city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":11908,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","summary_en":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","summary_en":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103412,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","summary_en":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131038,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14<\/strong> The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s <em>great and glorious<\/em> God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","summary_en":"4:14 The strongest motivation for hope was Israel’s great and glorious God, who had delivered his people from mighty nations before (cp. 2 Chr 32:7-8; see Exod 14:13-14; Deut 8:1-3; 20:3; Josh 10:25). Another motivation was to protect their own families and properties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62183,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62270,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89809,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89896,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117435,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117522,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145061,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145148,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":48161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","summary_en":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","summary_en":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103413,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","summary_en":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131039,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:15<\/strong> Nehemiah gave the credit to <em>God<\/em> (see also 2:20; 6:16), who <em>had frustrated them<\/em> through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","summary_en":"4:15 Nehemiah gave the credit to God (see also 2:20; 6:16), who had frustrated them through the prayers of the people, the 24-hour patrol, the open display of force, and the confidence in God’s protection.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":14923,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Habergeon*","title_en":"Habergeon*","content_ro":"<h3>HABERGEON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation for coat of mail, part of a soldier’s defensive armor (2 Chr 26:14; Neh 4:16; Jb 41:26, <span>nlt<\/span> “javelin”). <em>See<\/em> Armor and Weapons.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HABERGEON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation for coat of mail, part of a soldier’s defensive armor (2 Chr 26:14; Neh 4:16; Jb 41:26, <span>nlt<\/span> “javelin”). <em>See<\/em> Armor and Weapons.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HABERGEON* KJV translation for coat of mail, part of a soldier’s defensive armor (2 Chr 26:14; Neh 4:16; Jb 41:26, nlt “javelin”). See Armor and Weapons.","summary_en":"HABERGEON* KJV translation for coat of mail, part of a soldier’s defensive armor (2 Chr 26:14; Neh 4:16; Jb 41:26, nlt “javelin”). See Armor and Weapons.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":37484,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":48162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","summary_en":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","summary_en":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103414,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","summary_en":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131040,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:18-19<\/strong> Through the <em>trumpeter<\/em><em>,<\/em> Nehemiah could <em>sound the alarm<\/em> to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","summary_en":"4:18-19 Through the trumpeter, Nehemiah could sound the alarm to direct workers to any portion of the wall that might be attacked.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":37485,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:20","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","summary_en":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75789,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:20","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","summary_en":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103415,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:20","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","summary_en":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131041,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:20","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:20<\/strong> <em>our God will fight for us!<\/em> Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","summary_en":"4:20 our God will fight for us! Drawing on Israel’s ancient holy war tradition (Exod 14:14; Deut 1:30; 20:4; Josh 10:14; 23:10), Nehemiah encouraged the people that victory was certain if they trusted in the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62184,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62271,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89810,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89897,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117436,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117523,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145062,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","title_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Rebuilding of Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The destroyed wall was a shameful reminder that God had brought punishment on the city, fulfilling the covenant curses because of the people’s sin (1:2-7; 2:17). Consequently, the rebuilt wall would be a sign of God’s blessing and proof that God was bringing the promised restoration to his covenant people. Israel’s enemies knew that if the wall was rebuilt, the Jews would gain political power, security, and self-determination; so they fiercely opposed the rebuilding.<\/p>\n<p>Under Nehemiah’s leadership, the inhabitants of Judea rebuilt the entire wall in only fifty-two days during the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The speed and success of the reconstruction is a witness to all believers that with God’s help, his people can accomplish amazing things (see 2:18; 4:14-15, 20; 6:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:2-4; 2:10-20; 3:1-32; 4:1-23; 6:1-16; Ps 51:16-18; Isa 22:5; 26:1-3; Rev 21:10-27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","summary_en":"Rebuilding of Jerusalem The wall of Jerusalem had great political, social, and religious significance for the people of Judah (see Neh 2:10, 19; 4:1-15; 6:1-14). In the ancient world and up to the modern era, a city without walls would not remain a city for long. Walls protected a city both from invading nations and from common criminals. By Nehemiah’s time, the walls of Jerusalem had lain in ruins for over a hundred years, since the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. The destroyed wall was ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145149,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","title_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah’s Confidence in God<\/h3>\n<p>God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition because they knew that God fights for his people and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15, 20). When the walls of Jerusalem were finished, Nehemiah recognized that the entire difficult project was completed only because of God’s help (6:16).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah vividly demonstrates that God is all-powerful and able to accomplish his will, both in individual lives and in nations. The prayer in Nehemiah 9 focuses on praising God for his sovereign and powerful acts: God created the heavens and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8, 22-25). The miraculous signs in Egypt, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of guidance, food, and water in the wilderness all demonstrate God’s power over man and nature to provide for his people (9:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord had sent the Israelites into exile after generations of persistent sin (9:32-37). Now he was fulfilling part of his promise to restore them (1:8-9). Nehemiah had the confidence to pray and lead because he knew that everything that happened was part of God’s sovereign plan. This same confidence in God led Abram to leave Ur and by faith go to an unknown land (Gen 12:1-3; Heb 11:8-10), caused Rahab to trust in God (Josh 2:9-14; Heb 11:31), and prompted Hezekiah not to give in to the demands of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). Confidence comes when people believe that God will keep his promises and complete the work he has started in their lives (Phil 1:6).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:1-4; Josh 1:10-18; 2:9-14; 2 Kgs 18:1–19:37; Neh 1:8-9, 11; 2:8, 18, 20; 4:4-5, 9, 14-15, 20; 6:16; 9:6-31; Pss 4:5; 9:10; 37:3; 40:3; 44:6-7; 56:3-12; 112:1-9; Prov 3:5-12; 16:20; 28:1, 25; Isa 26:3; Heb 11:8-10, 31; 1 Jn 4:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","summary_en":"Nehemiah’s Confidence in God God gave Nehemiah favor in the eyes of a mighty Persian king so that the king responded favorably to all of Nehemiah’s requests (Neh 1:11; 2:8, 18). Nehemiah then had the confidence to present his bold plan to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and the people of Jerusalem responded positively, believing that God was able to give them success (2:18) and to protect them from their enemies (4:4-5, 9). They confidently continued with their work in spite of opposition bec...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":48164,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","summary_en":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75790,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","summary_en":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103416,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","summary_en":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131042,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","summary_en":"4:23 Nehemiah and the other leaders were not elitists who relaxed while others toiled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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