Neemia 7
1 După ce s-a zidit zidul şi am pus uşile porţilor, au fost puşi în slujbele lor uşierii, cântăreţii şi Leviţii.
2 Am poruncit fratelui meu Hanani, şi lui Hanania, căpetenia cetăţuii Ierusalimului, om care întrecea pe mulţi prin credincioşia şi prin frica lui de Dumnezeu,
3 şi le-am zis: ,,Să nu se deschidă porţile Ierusalimului înainte de căldura soarelui, şi uşile să fie închise cu încuietorile, în faţa voastră. Locuitorii Ierusalimului să facă de strajă, fiecare la locul lui, înaintea casei lui.``
4 Cetatea era încăpătoare şi mare, dar popor era puţin în ea, şi casele nu erau zidite.
5 Dumnezeul meu mi-a pus în inimă gândul să adun pe mai mari, pe dregători şi poporul, ca să-i număr. Am găsit o carte cu spiţele de neam ale celor ce se suiseră întâi din robie, şi am văzut scris în ea cele ce urmează.
6 Iată pe cei din ţară cari s-au întors din robie, din aceia pe cari îi luase robi Nebucadneţar, împăratul Babilonului, şi cari s-au întors la Ierusalim şi în Iuda, fiecare în cetatea lui.
7 Au plecat cu Zorobabel, Iosua, Neemia, Azaria, Raamia, Nahamani, Mardoheu, Bilşan, Misperet, Bigvai, Nehum, Baana. Numărul bărbaţilor din poporul lui Israel:
8 fiii lui Pareoş, două mii o sută şaptezeci şi doi;
9 fiii lui Şefatia, trei sute şaptezeci şi doi;
10 fiii lui Arah, şase sute cincizeci şi doi;
11 fiii lui Pahat-Moab, din fiii lui Iosua şi ai lui Ioab, două mii opt sute optsprezece;
12 fiii lui Elam, o mie două sute cincizeci şi patru;
13 fiii lui Zatu, opt sute patruzeci şi cinci;
14 fiii lui Zacai, şapte sute şasezeci;
15 fiii lui Binui, şase sute patruzeci şi opt;
16 fiii lui Bebai, şase sute douăzeci şi opt;
17 fiii lui Azgad, două mii trei sute douăzeci şi doi;
18 fiii lui Adonicam, şase sute şase zeci şi şapte;
19 fiii lui Bigvai, două mii şase zeci şi şapte;
20 fiii lui Adin, şase sute cincizeci şi cinci;
21 fiii lui Ater, din familia lui Ezechia, nouăzeci şi opt;
22 fiii lui Haşum, trei sute douăzeci şi opt;
23 fiii lui Beţai, trei sute douăzeci şi patru;
24 fiii lui Harif, o sută doisprezece;
25 fiii lui Gabaon, nouăzeci şi cinci;
26 oamenii din Betleem şi din Netofa, o sută optzeci şi opt;
27 oamenii din Anatot, o sută douăzeci şi opt;
28 oamenii din Bet-Azmavet, patruzeci şi doi;
29 oamenii din Chiriat-Iearim, din Chefira şi din Beerot, şapte sute patruzeci şi trei;
30 oamenii din Rama şi din Gheba, şase sute douăzeci şi unu;
31 oamenii din Micmas, o sută douăzeci şi doi;
32 oamenii din Betel şi din Ai, o sută douăzeci şi trei;
33 oamenii din celalt Nebo, cincizeci şi doi;
34 fiii celuilalt Elam, o mie două sute cincizeci şi patru;
35 fiii lui Harim, trei sute douăzeci;
36 fiii lui Ierihon, trei sute patruzeci şi cinci;
37 fiii lui Lod, lui Hadid şi lui Ono, şapte sute douăzeci şi unu;
38 fiii lui Senaa, trei mii nouă sute treizeci.
39 Preoţi: fiii lui Iedaia, din casa lui Iosua, nouă sute şapte zeci şi trei;
40 fiii lui Imer, o mie cinci zeci şi doi;
41 fiii lui Paşhur, o mie două sute patruzeci şi şapte;
42 fiii lui Harim, o mie şaptesprezece.
43 Leviţi: fiii lui Iosua şi lui Cadmiel, din fiii lui Hodva, şaptezeci şi patru.
44 Cântăreţi: fiii lui Asaf, o sută patruzeci şi opt.
45 Uşieri: fiii lui Şalum, fiii lui Ater, fiii lui Talmon, fiii lui Acub, fiii lui Hatita, fiiii lui Şobai, o sută treizeci şi opt.
46 Slujitori ai Templului: fiii lui Ţiha, fiii lui Hasufa, fiii lui Tabaot,
47 fiii lui Cheros, fiii lui Sia, fiii lui Padon,
48 fiii lui Lebana, fiii lui Hagaba, fiii lui Salmai,
49 fiii lui Hanan, fiii lui Ghidel, fiii lui Gahar,
50 fiii lui Reaia, fiii lui Reţin, fiii lui Necoda,
51 fiii lui Gazam, fiii lui Uza, fiii lui Paseah,
52 fiii lui Besai, fiii lui Mehunim, fiii lui Nefişim,
53 fiii lui Bacbuc, fiii lui Hacufa, fiii lui Harhur,
54 fiii lui Baţlit, fiii lui Mehida, fiii lui Harşa,
55 fiii lui Barcos, fiii lui Sisera, fiii lui Tamah,
56 fiii lui Neţiah, fiii lui Hatifa.
57 Fiii robilor lui Solomon: fiii lui Sotai, fiii lui Soferet, fiii lui Perida,
58 fiii lui Iaala, fiii lui Darcon, fiii lui Ghidel,
59 fiii lui Şefatia, fiii lui Hatil, fiii lui Pocheret-Haţebaim, fiii lui Amon.
60 Toţi slujitorii Templului şi fiii robilor lui Solomon: trei sute nouăzeci şi doi.
61 Iată pe ceice au plecat din Tel-Melah, din Tel-Harşa, din Cherub-Adon, şi din Imer, şi cari n-au putut să-şi arate casa părintească şi neamul, ca dovadă că erau din Israel.
62 Fiii lui Delaia, fiii lui Tobia, fiii lui Necoda, şase sute patruzeci şi doi.
63 Şi dintre preoţi: fiii lui Hobaia, fiii lui Hacoţ, fiii lui Barzilai, care luase de nevastă pe una din fetele lui Barzilai, Galaaditul, şi a fost numit cu numele lor.
64 Şi-au căutat cartea spiţelor neamului lor, dar n-au găsit-o. De aceea au fost daţi afară din preoţie,
65 şi dregătorul le-a spus să nu mănânce din lucrurile prea sfinte până nu va întreba un preot pe Urim şi Tumim.
66 Adunarea întreagă era de patruzeci şi două de mii trei sute şasezeci de inşi,
67 afară de robii şi roabele lor, în număr de şapte mii trei sute treizeci şi şapte. Printre ei se aflau două sute patruzeci şi cinci de cântăreţi şi cântăreţe.
68 Aveau şapte sute treizeci şi şase de cai, două sute patruzeci şi cinci de catâri,
69 patru sute treizeci şi cinci de cămile, şi şase mii şapte sute douăzeci de măgari.
70 Mulţi din capii de familie au făcut daruri pentru lucrare. Dregătorul a dat vistieriei o mie de darici de aur, cincizeci de potire, cinci sute treizeci de veşminte preoţeşti.
71 Capii de familie au dat în vistieria lucrării douăzeci de mii de darici de aur şi două mii douăsute de mine de argint.
72 Celalt popor a dat douăzeci de mii de darici de aur, două mii de mine de argint, şi şasezeci şi şapte de veşminte preoţeşti.
73 Preoţii şi Leviţii, uşierii, cântăreţii, oamenii din popor, slujitorii Templului şi tot Israelul s-au aşezat în cetăţile lor
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":11801,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ezra","title_en":"Book of Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","summary_en":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35551,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Singer","title_en":"Singer","content_ro":"<h3>SINGER<\/h3>\n<p>The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Music.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SINGER<\/h3>\n<p>The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Music.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SINGER The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them. See ...","summary_en":"SINGER The professional singer was important in temple worship. David first organized singers for worship in the tabernacle (1 Chr 9:33; 15:16, 19, 27). Later, they ministered in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 5:12-13) and for other kings (20:21; 23:13; 35:15). After the exile, the singers were again active (Ezr 2:41, 70; Neh 7:1, 44, 73; 10:28, 39). They sang psalms for temple worship (Pss 68:25; 87:7). Some were appointed “chief singers” (Hb 3:19). The sons of Asaph were prominent among them. See ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","summary_en":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75810,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","summary_en":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","summary_en":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:1<\/strong> <em>the wall was finished:<\/em> The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The <em>Levites<\/em> usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","summary_en":"7:1 the wall was finished: The actual dedication of the wall is reported in 12:27-34. • The Levites usually assisted with caring for the Temple area, including guarding its gates.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":352,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Acra*","title_en":"Acra*","content_ro":"<h3>ACRA*<\/h3>\n<p>Citadel of Jerusalem during the Seleucid and Hasmonean periods. The citadel was located on a high point near the temple. An exceptionally strong fortress, the Acra housed the garrison and controlled the city throughout the Maccabean wars. The Seleucid government considered the Acra a royal stronghold to be administered separately from the rest of Judea. At times, one armed force held the Acra and its opponent held the city itself, so that the fortress almost became an independent city. Josephus made mention of two forts called Acra. The earlier citadel was captured by Antiochus III in 198 <span>BC<\/span>. That Acra must be identical with the temple fortress of the Persian and Ptolemaic periods, the “castle” of Nehemiah 7:2 (<span>rsv<\/span>). The site later became the fortress called Antonia in the Roman period.<\/p>\n<p>A new citadel, the Acra proper, was later built by the Seleucids. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ruled 175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), after a humiliating defeat in Alexandria by the Romans, decided to abolish all Jewish worship practices. In 167 <span>BC<\/span>, he violated the most sacred Jewish laws by constructing an altar to the Greek god Zeus in the temple at Jerusalem and perhaps by sacrificing a pig on it (1 Macc 1:20-64; 2 Macc 6:1-6). The next year Antiochus sent a garrison to build the Acra and maintain his religious reforms, primarily to see that no aspect of the Jewish religion was practiced in the city. The Acra also served as a storehouse for food and loot plundered from the city. The Jews considered it “an ambush against the sanctuary, an evil adversary of Israel continually” (1 Macc 1:36).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus reported that Simon, the second of the Maccabean brothers, captured the Acra in 142 <span>BC<\/span> and spent three years leveling both the fort and the hill on which it stood. Josephus’s account is questioned, however, because other accounts mention Simon as ritually cleansing the citadel and using it to maintain the city’s security (see 1 Macc 13:50; 14:37).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ACRA*<\/h3>\n<p>Citadel of Jerusalem during the Seleucid and Hasmonean periods. The citadel was located on a high point near the temple. An exceptionally strong fortress, the Acra housed the garrison and controlled the city throughout the Maccabean wars. The Seleucid government considered the Acra a royal stronghold to be administered separately from the rest of Judea. At times, one armed force held the Acra and its opponent held the city itself, so that the fortress almost became an independent city. Josephus made mention of two forts called Acra. The earlier citadel was captured by Antiochus III in 198 <span>BC<\/span>. That Acra must be identical with the temple fortress of the Persian and Ptolemaic periods, the “castle” of Nehemiah 7:2 (<span>rsv<\/span>). The site later became the fortress called Antonia in the Roman period.<\/p>\n<p>A new citadel, the Acra proper, was later built by the Seleucids. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (ruled 175–164 <span>BC<\/span>), after a humiliating defeat in Alexandria by the Romans, decided to abolish all Jewish worship practices. In 167 <span>BC<\/span>, he violated the most sacred Jewish laws by constructing an altar to the Greek god Zeus in the temple at Jerusalem and perhaps by sacrificing a pig on it (1 Macc 1:20-64; 2 Macc 6:1-6). The next year Antiochus sent a garrison to build the Acra and maintain his religious reforms, primarily to see that no aspect of the Jewish religion was practiced in the city. The Acra also served as a storehouse for food and loot plundered from the city. The Jews considered it “an ambush against the sanctuary, an evil adversary of Israel continually” (1 Macc 1:36).<\/p>\n<p>Josephus reported that Simon, the second of the Maccabean brothers, captured the Acra in 142 <span>BC<\/span> and spent three years leveling both the fort and the hill on which it stood. Josephus’s account is questioned, however, because other accounts mention Simon as ritually cleansing the citadel and using it to maintain the city’s security (see 1 Macc 13:50; 14:37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ACRA* Citadel of Jerusalem during the Seleucid and Hasmonean periods. The citadel was located on a high point near the temple. An exceptionally strong fortress, the Acra housed the garrison and controlled the city throughout the Maccabean wars. The Seleucid government considered the Acra a royal stronghold to be administered separately from the rest of Judea. At times, one armed force held the Acra and its opponent held the city itself, so that the fortress almost became an independent city. ...","summary_en":"ACRA* Citadel of Jerusalem during the Seleucid and Hasmonean periods. The citadel was located on a high point near the temple. An exceptionally strong fortress, the Acra housed the garrison and controlled the city throughout the Maccabean wars. The Seleucid government considered the Acra a royal stronghold to be administered separately from the rest of Judea. At times, one armed force held the Acra and its opponent held the city itself, so that the fortress almost became an independent city. ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15212,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanani","title_en":"Hanani","content_ro":"<h3>HANANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Seer who rebuked King Asa for giving treasure to Ben-hadad of Syria to persuade him to attack Israel. Hanani was imprisoned for his preaching (2 Chr 16:1-10). Hanani was the father of the prophet Jehu, who made protests against Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kgs 16:1-7), and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chr 19:2).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Heman’s son, David’s seer, and a musician in the temple (1 Chr 25:4, 25).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Priest who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after returning from exile (Ezr 10:20).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Brother of Nehemiah who induced him to act on behalf of the Jews when he reported the state of Jerusalem and Judah (Neh 1:2). Hanani was later given responsibility for the city of Jerusalem (7:2).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Priest and musician who participated in the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem (Neh 12:36).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Seer who rebuked King Asa for giving treasure to Ben-hadad of Syria to persuade him to attack Israel. Hanani was imprisoned for his preaching (2 Chr 16:1-10). Hanani was the father of the prophet Jehu, who made protests against Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kgs 16:1-7), and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chr 19:2).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Heman’s son, David’s seer, and a musician in the temple (1 Chr 25:4, 25).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Priest who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after returning from exile (Ezr 10:20).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Brother of Nehemiah who induced him to act on behalf of the Jews when he reported the state of Jerusalem and Judah (Neh 1:2). Hanani was later given responsibility for the city of Jerusalem (7:2).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Priest and musician who participated in the dedication of the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem (Neh 12:36).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANANI 1. Seer who rebuked King Asa for giving treasure to Ben-hadad of Syria to persuade him to attack Israel. Hanani was imprisoned for his preaching (2 Chr 16:1-10). Hanani was the father of the prophet Jehu, who made protests against Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kgs 16:1-7), and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chr 19:2). 2. Heman’s son, David’s seer, and a musician in the temple (1 Chr 25:4, 25). 3. Priest who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after returning from exile (Ezr ...","summary_en":"HANANI 1. Seer who rebuked King Asa for giving treasure to Ben-hadad of Syria to persuade him to attack Israel. Hanani was imprisoned for his preaching (2 Chr 16:1-10). Hanani was the father of the prophet Jehu, who made protests against Baasha, king of Israel (1 Kgs 16:1-7), and Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chr 19:2). 2. Heman’s son, David’s seer, and a musician in the temple (1 Chr 25:4, 25). 3. Priest who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after returning from exile (Ezr ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15221,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hananiah","title_en":"Hananiah","content_ro":"<h3>HANANIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19, 21).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Heman’s son and the leader of the 16th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 25:4, 23).<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of the commanders of King Uzziah’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Bebai’s son, who returned with the exiles from Babylon and was later encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Perfumer who helped Nehemiah rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Shelemiah’s son, who with Hanun repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:30). He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Commander of the citadel of Jerusalem who was assigned by Nehemiah to rule the city jointly with Hanani, Nehemiah’s brother. Hananiah, described as a faithful and God-fearing man, was appointed the task of seeing that the city walls and gates were regularly guarded (Neh 7:2-3).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the leaders of the people who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>10. Head of the priestly family of Jeremiah during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the priests who blew a trumpet at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gibeonite and the son of Azzur. Hananiah prophesied during the fourth year of King Zedekiah of Judah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). He openly declared in the temple that in two years the Lord would break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>), from the neck of Judah and return its exiles and sacred possessions to Palestine. Told by the Lord that Hananiah’s prophecy was false, Jeremiah reproached Hananiah for lying and foretold his imminent death. Hananiah died two months later (Jer 28).<\/li>\n<li>13. Father of Zedekiah, an official of King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 36:12).<\/li>\n<li>14. Grandfather of Irijah, the captain of the guards, who arrested Jeremiah at Jerusalem’s Gate of Benjamin for apparently deserting to the Babylonians (Jer 37:13).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the three Jewish friends of Daniel exiled in Babylon. He was assigned the Babylonian name Shadrach (Dn 1:6-19; 2:17).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HANANIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19, 21).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Heman’s son and the leader of the 16th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 25:4, 23).<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of the commanders of King Uzziah’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Bebai’s son, who returned with the exiles from Babylon and was later encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Perfumer who helped Nehemiah rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Shelemiah’s son, who with Hanun repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:30). He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Commander of the citadel of Jerusalem who was assigned by Nehemiah to rule the city jointly with Hanani, Nehemiah’s brother. Hananiah, described as a faithful and God-fearing man, was appointed the task of seeing that the city walls and gates were regularly guarded (Neh 7:2-3).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the leaders of the people who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>10. Head of the priestly family of Jeremiah during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the priests who blew a trumpet at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gibeonite and the son of Azzur. Hananiah prophesied during the fourth year of King Zedekiah of Judah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). He openly declared in the temple that in two years the Lord would break the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>), from the neck of Judah and return its exiles and sacred possessions to Palestine. Told by the Lord that Hananiah’s prophecy was false, Jeremiah reproached Hananiah for lying and foretold his imminent death. Hananiah died two months later (Jer 28).<\/li>\n<li>13. Father of Zedekiah, an official of King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 36:12).<\/li>\n<li>14. Grandfather of Irijah, the captain of the guards, who arrested Jeremiah at Jerusalem’s Gate of Benjamin for apparently deserting to the Babylonians (Jer 37:13).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the three Jewish friends of Daniel exiled in Babylon. He was assigned the Babylonian name Shadrach (Dn 1:6-19; 2:17).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HANANIAH 1. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19, 21). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Heman’s son and the leader of the 16th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 25:4, 23). 4. One of the commanders of King Uzziah’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 5. Bebai’s son, who returned with the exiles from Babylon and was later encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:28). 6. Perfumer who helped Nehemiah rebuild the Je...","summary_en":"HANANIAH 1. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19, 21). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Heman’s son and the leader of the 16th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the house of the Lord (1 Chr 25:4, 23). 4. One of the commanders of King Uzziah’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 5. Bebai’s son, who returned with the exiles from Babylon and was later encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:28). 6. Perfumer who helped Nehemiah rebuild the Je...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","summary_en":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75811,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","summary_en":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103437,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","summary_en":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131063,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:2<\/strong> <em>a faithful man who feared God:<\/em> Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","summary_en":"7:2 a faithful man who feared God: Hanani displayed two leadership characteristics favored by Nehemiah and God (see also 5:9, 15; Dan 6:4; Luke 16:10-12; 1 Pet 5:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":48186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","summary_en":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75812,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","summary_en":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103438,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","summary_en":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3<\/strong> The <em>gatekeepers<\/em> were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","summary_en":"7:3 The gatekeepers were apparently supposed to close the gates during the time in the afternoon when people were resting and were not prepared to defend the city from attack. Elsewhere, similar language refers to the portion of the day when the sun is the hottest and people retreat inside (Gen 18:1; 2 Sam 4:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":27228,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48187,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","summary_en":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75813,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","summary_en":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103439,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","summary_en":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:4-5<\/strong> Most people lived in the country near their fields, so <em>the population<\/em> of Jerusalem <em>was small<\/em>. Apparently, a <em>registration<\/em> would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","summary_en":"7:4-5 Most people lived in the country near their fields, so the population of Jerusalem was small. Apparently, a registration would encourage more people to settle in and near Jerusalem (7:73).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":13389,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":13448,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48188,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","summary_en":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75814,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","summary_en":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103440,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","summary_en":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6<\/strong> <em>Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns:<\/em> These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","summary_en":"7:6 Jewish exiles . . . returned to Jerusalem and the other towns: These lists were not complete (the individual numbers do not add up to the total number in 7:66), but they were the best records available to verify who truly was a Jew.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":42027,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69653,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97279,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124905,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Zerubbabel","title_en":"Zerubbabel","content_ro":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zerubbabel<\/h3>\n<p>Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 <span>BC<\/span> as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles.<\/p>\n<p>Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea soon ran into opposition from the people in the land, who effectively shut down construction. The Judeans were distracted from the project until the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah encouraged them to begin working again. Zerubbabel was instrumental in leading and organizing the Temple rebuilding effort, which took about six years (520–515 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Exuberant hope surrounded Zerubbabel, who was a direct descendant of King David (1 Chr 3:1-19). Zechariah and Haggai both describe Zerubbabel in messianic terms as the one chosen by God to bring restoration to Israel (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 4:6-7). But Zerubbabel soon disappears from the biblical narrative without explanation. This early governor of Judea was not the Messiah. Rather, Jesus Christ, one of Zerubbabel’s descendants (Matt 1:12), would assume that glorious position.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 2:1–6:22; Neh 7:7; Hag 1:12–2:23; Zech 4:1-14; Matt 1:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","summary_en":"Zerubbabel Zerubbabel, a Babylonian-born Jew, relocated to Judea in 538 BC as governor of Jerusalem under Persian rule. Cyrus, the king of Persia, had declared that Jews captured and exiled from Judah might return to their homeland; Zerubbabel led one of the first groups of returning exiles. Zerubbabel came to Judea with the mission of rebuilding the Temple, and he began by constructing the altar. Sacrifice could begin again once the Holy Place was restored. However, the community of Judea so...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3288,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azariah","title_en":"Azariah","content_ro":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","summary_en":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3429,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baanah","title_en":"Baanah","content_ro":"<h3>BAANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, God’s chosen king (ch 1), was angry instead. He ordered Baanah and Rechab executed. Their hands and feet were cut off and their bodies hanged (4:8-12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Baanah’s son, Heled, from the town of Netophah near Bethlehem in Judah’s territory, was one of David’s 30 “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Baana, Hushai’s son, in 1 Kings 4:16. <em>See<\/em> Baana #2.<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>\n<li>5. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:27). He is possibly the same as Baana (Neh 3:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BAANAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, God’s chosen king (ch 1), was angry instead. He ordered Baanah and Rechab executed. Their hands and feet were cut off and their bodies hanged (4:8-12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Baanah’s son, Heled, from the town of Netophah near Bethlehem in Judah’s territory, was one of David’s 30 “mighty men” (2 Sm 23:29; 1 Chr 11:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Baana, Hushai’s son, in 1 Kings 4:16. <em>See<\/em> Baana #2.<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>\n<li>5. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:27). He is possibly the same as Baana (Neh 3:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BAANAH 1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, G...","summary_en":"BAANAH 1. Rimmon’s son, a member of Benjamin’s tribe. Baanah and his brother Rechab were captains under Ishbosheth after Ishbosheth’s father, King Saul, died in battle. Ishbosheth, crowned king by Saul’s general, Abner, was David’s rival to the throne of Israel. Baanah and Rechab murdered Ishbosheth in his sleep and cut off his head (2 Sm 4:2-7). They took the head to David, thinking he would be pleased that they had killed the son of his enemy. But David, who had wept at the death of Saul, G...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4917,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bigvai","title_en":"Bigvai","content_ro":"<h3>BIGVAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BIGVAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BIGVAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.","summary_en":"BIGVAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:2, 14; Neh 7:7, 19). Since his name is Persian, Bigvai may have been born or renamed during the exile. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16); possibly a representative for the family descended from #1 above.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4943,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bilshan","title_en":"Bilshan","content_ro":"<h3>BILSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BILSHAN<\/h3>\n<p>One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BILSHAN One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).","summary_en":"BILSHAN One, who with Nehemiah and Zerubbabel, led a group of Jews to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19336,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mispar, Mispereth*","title_en":"Mispar, Mispereth*","content_ro":"<h3>MISPAR, MISPERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISPAR, MISPERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISPAR, MISPERETH* One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.","summary_en":"MISPAR, MISPERETH* One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Mispereth in Nehemiah 7:7.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mordecai","title_en":"Mordecai","content_ro":"<h3>MORDECAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. While his name reveals a Babylonian etymology, his heart burned with love for his countrymen who, notwithstanding the decree of Cyrus permitting their return to the Holy Land (538 <span>BC<\/span>), determined to colonize in dispersion rather than face the hardships of resettling in Palestine.<\/li>\n<p>His remarkable life’s drama is intertwined with Hadassah (Esther), his cousin, who became his ward following the death of her parents. Esther’s sudden, unexpected exaltation to the position of queen following Vashti’s deposition was an essential link to the deliverance of her people; Mordecai’s forceful influence upon this beautiful Jewess was another. Behind them both, however, moved their sovereign God, whose love for Israel provided protection against the malevolent designs of Xerxes’ prime minister, Haman.<\/p>\n<p>Haman, the very incarnation of evil, had determined to exterminate the Jews of Persia because of Mordecai’s unwillingness to pay him homage. Mordecai, learning of the plot, communicated the matter to Esther by way of Hathach, one of the king’s officers. Her initial hesitancy to intervene on behalf of her people was met with her cousin’s concise and stern answer: “Do not think that because you are in the king’s house you alone of all the Jews will escape. For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance for the Jews will arise from another place, but you and your father’s family will perish. And who knows but that you have come to royal position for such a time as this?” (Est 4:13-14, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several days elapsed during which Haman erected an enormous gallows upon which to hang Mordecai. On the evening of its completion, Xerxes, being unable to sleep, ordered the book containing the record of his reign to be read to him. Upon hearing of the actions of Mordecai in frustrating an earlier assassination attempt against him, he inquired as to what honors Mordecai had received in recognition of his service. Finding he had not been rewarded, Xerxes summoned Haman and asked him what fitting thing should be done for the man the king had purposed to honor. Haman, thinking that he was the object of the king’s query, responded with three grand ideas (Est 6:7-9). Ironically, Haman was chosen to carry out his recommendations on behalf of Mordecai. A final touch of irony is seen in the execution of Haman on the very instrument he had prepared for Mordecai.<\/p>\n<p>Following Haman’s death, Mordecai and Esther had to act quickly to counteract the irrevocable edict directed against the Jews at Haman’s instigation. Xerxes, now solicitous of the Jews’ well-being, issued another edict allowing the Jews the freedom both to defend themselves and to retaliate against any aggressors. Apparently, the Persian officials to whom Mordecai forwarded this follow-up directive cooperated fully in protecting the Jews from their adversaries, thousands of whom were slain.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, Mordecai instructed all Jews to celebrate the time of their deliverance annually on the 14th and 15th days of Adar (roughly, March). The name of the festival, Purim, is derived from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pur<\/span> (“lot”), which was cast by Haman to determine the day for the Jews’ annihilation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the 10 leaders who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MORDECAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. While his name reveals a Babylonian etymology, his heart burned with love for his countrymen who, notwithstanding the decree of Cyrus permitting their return to the Holy Land (538 <span>BC<\/span>), determined to colonize in dispersion rather than face the hardships of resettling in Palestine.<\/li>\n<p>His remarkable life’s drama is intertwined with Hadassah (Esther), his cousin, who became his ward following the death of her parents. Esther’s sudden, unexpected exaltation to the position of queen following Vashti’s deposition was an essential link to the deliverance of her people; Mordecai’s forceful influence upon this beautiful Jewess was another. Behind them both, however, moved their sovereign God, whose love for Israel provided protection against the malevolent designs of Xerxes’ prime minister, Haman.<\/p>\n<p>Haman, the very incarnation of evil, had determined to exterminate the Jews of Persia because of Mordecai’s unwillingness to pay him homage. Mordecai, learning of the plot, communicated the matter to Esther by way of Hathach, one of the king’s officers. Her initial hesitancy to intervene on behalf of her people was met with her cousin’s concise and stern answer: “Do not think that because you are in the king’s house you alone of all the Jews will escape. For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance for the Jews will arise from another place, but you and your father’s family will perish. And who knows but that you have come to royal position for such a time as this?” (Est 4:13-14, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several days elapsed during which Haman erected an enormous gallows upon which to hang Mordecai. On the evening of its completion, Xerxes, being unable to sleep, ordered the book containing the record of his reign to be read to him. Upon hearing of the actions of Mordecai in frustrating an earlier assassination attempt against him, he inquired as to what honors Mordecai had received in recognition of his service. Finding he had not been rewarded, Xerxes summoned Haman and asked him what fitting thing should be done for the man the king had purposed to honor. Haman, thinking that he was the object of the king’s query, responded with three grand ideas (Est 6:7-9). Ironically, Haman was chosen to carry out his recommendations on behalf of Mordecai. A final touch of irony is seen in the execution of Haman on the very instrument he had prepared for Mordecai.<\/p>\n<p>Following Haman’s death, Mordecai and Esther had to act quickly to counteract the irrevocable edict directed against the Jews at Haman’s instigation. Xerxes, now solicitous of the Jews’ well-being, issued another edict allowing the Jews the freedom both to defend themselves and to retaliate against any aggressors. Apparently, the Persian officials to whom Mordecai forwarded this follow-up directive cooperated fully in protecting the Jews from their adversaries, thousands of whom were slain.<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, Mordecai instructed all Jews to celebrate the time of their deliverance annually on the 14th and 15th days of Adar (roughly, March). The name of the festival, Purim, is derived from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pur<\/span> (“lot”), which was cast by Haman to determine the day for the Jews’ annihilation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the 10 leaders who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MORDECAI 1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. W...","summary_en":"MORDECAI 1. Jewish leader during the exile. Our knowledge of Mordecai comes exclusively from the book of Esther, which, according to some rabbinic sources, Mordecai himself wrote. Mordecai’s activities are set against the period in which Xerxes (Ahasuerus) reigned over ancient Persia, a vast empire stretching over 127 provinces. Mordecai was a Benjamite descendant of Kish, the father of King Saul. His relatives were among those Jews who left Palestine during the captivity of Nebuchadnezzar. W...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26837,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nahamani","title_en":"Nahamani","content_ro":"<h3>NAHAMANI<\/h3>\n<p>One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAHAMANI<\/h3>\n<p>One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAHAMANI One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.","summary_en":"NAHAMANI One of the leading officials who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Neh 7:7). His name is omitted in the parallel list of returning officials in Ezra 2:2.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27202,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehemiah (Person)","title_en":"Nehemiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7).<\/p>\n<li>2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 3:16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), Nehemiah pleaded to be sent to Judah to aid his fellow Jews in their difficulties and in particular to rebuild Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8). He was appointed governor of Judah for 12 years.<\/li>\n<p>After inspecting the walls upon his arrival, he realized that their repair was to be his prime task. This repair would guarantee the security of the city and could provide a focal point for the Jewish community scattered throughout Judah. That he was able to marshal support for this project and to complete it attests to his skills in management and administration. He also had a strong personal faith, as his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and conviction of divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20) attest. He had to overcome hostility and intimidation from powerful neighboring authorities in Samaria, Ammon, and Arabia (4:1-9; 6:1-14). He also required economic justice (ch 5). A few rich Jews were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer brothers.<\/p>\n<p>Included in Nehemiah’s concern for Jerusalem was a strong interest in the maintenance of temple worship. He was involved in the production of a document in which the Jewish community pledged themselves to support the temple personnel and to provide offerings (Neh 10:1, 32-39). Clearly, he realized that Judah needed at its heart a religious emphasis as well as political stability. These particular religious reforms are linked with those of his second period as governor (ch 13). Other reforms of that period concerned the observance of the Sabbath (13:15-22) and the problem of marriages to non-Jews (13:23-27). Nehemiah was a forceful leader (v 25) who used his imperial powers to restore to the settlers a national and religious identity in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nehemiah, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH (Person) Name of three men mentioned in the OT after the period of the exile. The name means “the Lord comforts” and was appropriate for this time of hope and fulfillment. 1. Leader mentioned in a list of Jewish exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel sometime after 538 BC (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7). 2. Ruler of half the district of Beth-zur who helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall in 444 BC (Neh 3:16). 3. Governor of Judah during the restoration. Originally cupbearer to the Persian ki...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27250,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nehum*","title_en":"Nehum*","content_ro":"<h3>NEHUM*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Rehum #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHUM*<\/h3>\n<p>One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Rehum #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHUM* One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. See Rehum #1.","summary_en":"NEHUM* One of the men listed in Nehemiah 7:7 who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity. His name is alternately spelled Rehum in Ezra 2:2. See Rehum #1.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32254,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Raamiah*","title_en":"Raamiah*","content_ro":"<h3>RAAMIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Reelaiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAAMIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Reelaiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAAMIAH* One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, nlt mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. See Reelaiah.","summary_en":"RAAMIAH* One who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Neh 7:7, nlt mg). Raamiah is alternately spelled Reelaiah in Ezra 2:2. The correct form of the word is uncertain. See Reelaiah.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32588,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reelaiah","title_en":"Reelaiah","content_ro":"<h3>REELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Raamiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Raamiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REELAIAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). See Raamiah.","summary_en":"REELAIAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:2); alternately called Raamiah (Neh 7:7). See Raamiah.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32645,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rehum","title_en":"Rehum","content_ro":"<h3>REHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). <em>See<\/em> Nehum.<\/li>\n<li>2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who accompanied Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3); elsewhere he was called Harim (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Harim #5.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). <em>See<\/em> Nehum.<\/li>\n<li>2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23).<\/li>\n<li>3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who accompanied Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3); elsewhere he was called Harim (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Harim #5.<\/li>","summary_ro":"REHUM 1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). See Nehum. 2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23). 3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repai...","summary_en":"REHUM 1. One of the 12 Jewish leaders who returned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7, where “Nehum” is apparently a copyist’s error). See Nehum. 2. Persian commander who, with Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes I, complaining of the Jews’ temple-rebuilding project and promising dire consequences should the project be completed. The king’s response halted construction until the second year of Darius’s reign (Ezr 4:8-23). 3. Levite identified as Bani’s son, who helped repai...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Seraiah","title_en":"Seraiah","content_ro":"<h3>SERAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi through Aaron’s line.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite and one of the captains of the Judean forces who sought clemency from Nebuchadnezzar under Gedaliah (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Judahite, the son of Kenaz, the brother of Othniel and Joab’s father (1 Chr 4:13-14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Simeonite, the son of Asiel and Joshibiah’s father (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:2); called Azariah in Nehemiah 7:7. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #23.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Father of Ezra the scribe. Ezra returned to Jerusalem during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:1). He is perhaps identical with #2 above, in which case Jehozadak would be Ezra’s brother.<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Hilkiah and a priest living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:11); called Azariah in 1 Chronicles 9:11. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #10.<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:1). His house in the next generation was headed by Meraiah. He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Azriel who, with Jerahmeel and Shelemiah, was ordered by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to capture Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>12. Son of Neriah and the official who accompanied King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>) to Babylon. Seraiah was to relay Jeremiah’s message against Babylon (Jer 51:59-61).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SERAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi through Aaron’s line.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite and one of the captains of the Judean forces who sought clemency from Nebuchadnezzar under Gedaliah (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Judahite, the son of Kenaz, the brother of Othniel and Joab’s father (1 Chr 4:13-14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Simeonite, the son of Asiel and Joshibiah’s father (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the men who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:2); called Azariah in Nehemiah 7:7. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #23.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Father of Ezra the scribe. Ezra returned to Jerusalem during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 7:1). He is perhaps identical with #2 above, in which case Jehozadak would be Ezra’s brother.<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Hilkiah and a priest living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:11); called Azariah in 1 Chronicles 9:11. <em>See<\/em> Azariah #10.<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:1). His house in the next generation was headed by Meraiah. He is perhaps identical with #6 above.<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Azriel who, with Jerahmeel and Shelemiah, was ordered by King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) to capture Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>\n<li>12. Son of Neriah and the official who accompanied King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>) to Babylon. Seraiah was to relay Jeremiah’s message against Babylon (Jer 51:59-61).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SERAIAH 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16. 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 BC. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi throu...","summary_en":"SERAIAH 1. Royal secretary of King David (2 Sm 8:17); alternately called Sheva in 2 Samuel 20:25, Shisha in 1 Kings 4:3, and Shavsha in 1 Chronicles 18:16. 2. Chief priest in Jerusalem at the time of its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 BC. He was taken by Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where he was put to death (2 Kgs 25:18; Jer 52:24). First Chronicles 6:14 records Seraiah as the son of Azariah, the father of Jehozadak and a descendant of Levi throu...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48189,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","summary_en":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75815,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","summary_en":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103441,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","summary_en":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:7<\/strong> <em>Their leaders:<\/em> Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","summary_en":"7:7 Their leaders: Sheshbazzar (see Ezra 1:8) is omitted here and in Ezra 2:2, suggesting that both lists were developed after the people had settled in their towns and after Sheshbazzar had died.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":28882,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Parosh","title_en":"Parosh","content_ro":"<h3>PAROSH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAROSH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAROSH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).","summary_en":"PAROSH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:3; Neh 7:8). One of his descendants, Pedaiah, participated in rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:25); other descendants are mentioned as having taken foreign wives (Ezr 10:25).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48190,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75816,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103442,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131068,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8-38<\/strong> <em>the family of:<\/em> This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"7:8-38 the family of: This list is similar to that in Ezra 2:3-35, with some differences in names and the number of people in each family. People were listed by family (Neh 7:8-25) and by the town where they settled (7:26-38). Most of the towns were north of Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":34963,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shephatiah","title_en":"Shephatiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","summary_en":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":2496,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arah","title_en":"Arah","content_ro":"<h3>ARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ARAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ARAH 1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39). 2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).","summary_en":"ARAH 1. Ulla’s son from Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:39). 2. Ancestor of a group of people that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:5; Neh 7:10).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":19346,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19912,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joab","title_en":"Joab","content_ro":"<h3>JOAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Possibly Joab sensed that Abner would be his rival. Nevertheless, David praised the slain commander as a prince and a great man (vv 31-39) and set a curse on the house of Joab for his insubordination (vv 26-29, 39). This incident illumines Joab’s sometimes unscrupulous and ruthless behavior.<\/li>\n<p>Joab spearheaded David’s siege of the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and when David consolidated his reign there, Joab became the commander of the king’s army (2 Sm 8:16; 11:1; cf. 1 Chr 11:6-8; 18:15). He suppressed a rebellion among the Syrians and Ammonites (2 Sm 10:7-14; 1 Chr 19:8-15). At Rabbah he not only conquered the city (2 Sm 11–12) but arranged for the death of Uriah the Hittite so that David could take Uriah’s wife, Bathsheba.<\/p>\n<p>Joab’s loyalties to David and shrewd control of the army are seen during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 15). Joab suppressed the conspiracy (ch 18), but ignoring a direct order from David not to kill his son (18:5), brutally killed him anyway (vv 10-17). When David mourned, Joab rebuked the king, urging that a crisis with the army was imminent (19:5-7). This insubordination led David to replace Joab with Amasa as commander (v 13), but later, at Gibeon, Joab also killed him dishonorably (20:8-10). Joab’s influence in the army must have been great, since he regained his former role as military commander (2 Sm 20:23, 24:2; 1 Kgs 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of David’s reign, Joab supported the conspiracy of Adonijah and Abiathar against the throne (1 Kgs 1:7). David’s distrust of him led the king to warn Solomon specifically about Joab’s repeated treacheries (2:5-9). Solomon had to resolve the problem of an untrustworthy army. Therefore, upon his father’s death, Solomon pursued the conspirators Adonijah (v 23), Abiathar (v 26), and Joab (v 28). Solomon’s officer Benaiah found Joab at the altar seeking refuge and killed him there (vv 28-35), thus cleansing Solomon’s reign from the wrongdoing of Joab.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation (“Ataroth, the house of Joab”) of Atroth-beth-joab in 1 Chronicles 2:54. <em>See<\/em> Atroth-beth-joab.<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Seraiah’s son from the house of Kenaz and forefather of the residents of the valley of craftsmen (1 Chr 4:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of a clan of Jews who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of which 219 members returned with Ezra to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 8:9). He is perhaps identifiable with #4 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Possibly Joab sensed that Abner would be his rival. Nevertheless, David praised the slain commander as a prince and a great man (vv 31-39) and set a curse on the house of Joab for his insubordination (vv 26-29, 39). This incident illumines Joab’s sometimes unscrupulous and ruthless behavior.<\/li>\n<p>Joab spearheaded David’s siege of the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and when David consolidated his reign there, Joab became the commander of the king’s army (2 Sm 8:16; 11:1; cf. 1 Chr 11:6-8; 18:15). He suppressed a rebellion among the Syrians and Ammonites (2 Sm 10:7-14; 1 Chr 19:8-15). At Rabbah he not only conquered the city (2 Sm 11–12) but arranged for the death of Uriah the Hittite so that David could take Uriah’s wife, Bathsheba.<\/p>\n<p>Joab’s loyalties to David and shrewd control of the army are seen during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 15). Joab suppressed the conspiracy (ch 18), but ignoring a direct order from David not to kill his son (18:5), brutally killed him anyway (vv 10-17). When David mourned, Joab rebuked the king, urging that a crisis with the army was imminent (19:5-7). This insubordination led David to replace Joab with Amasa as commander (v 13), but later, at Gibeon, Joab also killed him dishonorably (20:8-10). Joab’s influence in the army must have been great, since he regained his former role as military commander (2 Sm 20:23, 24:2; 1 Kgs 1:19).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of David’s reign, Joab supported the conspiracy of Adonijah and Abiathar against the throne (1 Kgs 1:7). David’s distrust of him led the king to warn Solomon specifically about Joab’s repeated treacheries (2:5-9). Solomon had to resolve the problem of an untrustworthy army. Therefore, upon his father’s death, Solomon pursued the conspirators Adonijah (v 23), Abiathar (v 26), and Joab (v 28). Solomon’s officer Benaiah found Joab at the altar seeking refuge and killed him there (vv 28-35), thus cleansing Solomon’s reign from the wrongdoing of Joab.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV translation (“Ataroth, the house of Joab”) of Atroth-beth-joab in 1 Chronicles 2:54. <em>See<\/em> Atroth-beth-joab.<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Seraiah’s son from the house of Kenaz and forefather of the residents of the valley of craftsmen (1 Chr 4:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of a clan of Jews who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of which 219 members returned with Ezra to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 8:9). He is perhaps identifiable with #4 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOAB 1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Po...","summary_en":"JOAB 1. Son of Zeruiah, the half sister of David (1 Chr 2:16), who, along with his brothers Abishai and Asahel, was well known for his military valor in Judah (2 Sm 2:18; cf. 1 Sm 26:6). According to 2 Samuel, Joab rose to prominence and distinguished himself at the battle of Gibeon when Saul’s troops under Abner were vanquished (2 Sm 2:8-32). Because Abner had slain Joab’s brother Asahel (v 23), Joab later killed Abner in revenge (3:26-30), despite Abner’s new loyalty to David (vv 12-19). Po...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28706,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pahath-Moab","title_en":"Pahath-Moab","content_ro":"<h3>PAHATH-MOAB<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of the people, set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PAHATH-MOAB<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of the people, set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PAHATH-MOAB Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of t...","summary_en":"PAHATH-MOAB Head of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11). Other members of his family, about 200 men, came with Ezra (Ezr 8:4). After the return, certain of his sons were included among the Israelites who vowed to sever their relationships with foreign wives (10:30). Hasshub, Pahath-moab’s son, helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall and the tower of furnaces in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 3:11). Pahath-moab, called a chief of t...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":10242,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elam (Person)","title_en":"Elam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","summary_en":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":38930,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zattu","title_en":"Zattu","content_ro":"<h3>ZATTU<\/h3>\n<li>1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZATTU<\/h3>\n<li>1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZATTU 1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27). 2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.","summary_en":"ZATTU 1. Clan chief with whom 945 people returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:8; Neh 7:13 cites 845 returnees). Of the priests who renounced their foreign wives, six are listed as “sons” of Zattu (Ezr 10:27). 2. One of the chiefs of the people who signed Nehemiah’s covenant (Neh 10:14); perhaps the same person as #1 above.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":38847,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zaccai","title_en":"Zaccai","content_ro":"<h3>ZACCAI<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZACCAI<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZACCAI Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).","summary_en":"ZACCAI Forefather of a family who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:9; Neh 7:14).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":3588,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bani","title_en":"Bani","content_ro":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","summary_en":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4964,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Binnui","title_en":"Binnui","content_ro":"<h3>BINNUI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Noadiah’s father. Noadiah was a Levite in charge of weighing temple valuables after the exile (Ezr 8:33). Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li>2. Pahath-moab’s son or descendant. He obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. According to the Apocrypha and the <span>kjv<\/span>, one of Bani’s sons (descendants) who also obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife (Ezr 10:38; 1 Esd 9:34). Because the list of Bani’s descendants is proportionally very long and because verse 38 in Hebrew can easily be construed “of the sons of Binnui,” most modern translations make Binnui an ancestor of a new group rather than a descendant of Bani.<\/li>\n<li>4. Henadad’s son who repaired part of Jerusalem’s wall after the exile (Neh 3:24). He was among the Levites who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God (Neh 10:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. Alternate spelling for Bani in Nehemiah 7:15. <em>See<\/em> Bani #4.<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was one of several in charge of songs of thanksgiving (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Bani and Bavvai) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BINNUI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Noadiah’s father. Noadiah was a Levite in charge of weighing temple valuables after the exile (Ezr 8:33). Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li>2. Pahath-moab’s son or descendant. He obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. According to the Apocrypha and the <span>kjv<\/span>, one of Bani’s sons (descendants) who also obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife (Ezr 10:38; 1 Esd 9:34). Because the list of Bani’s descendants is proportionally very long and because verse 38 in Hebrew can easily be construed “of the sons of Binnui,” most modern translations make Binnui an ancestor of a new group rather than a descendant of Bani.<\/li>\n<li>4. Henadad’s son who repaired part of Jerusalem’s wall after the exile (Neh 3:24). He was among the Levites who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God (Neh 10:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. Alternate spelling for Bani in Nehemiah 7:15. <em>See<\/em> Bani #4.<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was one of several in charge of songs of thanksgiving (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Bani and Bavvai) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BINNUI 1. Noadiah’s father. Noadiah was a Levite in charge of weighing temple valuables after the exile (Ezr 8:33). Possibly the same as #4 below. 2. Pahath-moab’s son or descendant. He obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:30). 3. According to the Apocrypha and the kjv, one of Bani’s sons (descendants) who also obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife (Ezr 10:38; 1 Esd 9:34). Because the list of Bani’s descendants is proportionally very long a...","summary_en":"BINNUI 1. Noadiah’s father. Noadiah was a Levite in charge of weighing temple valuables after the exile (Ezr 8:33). Possibly the same as #4 below. 2. Pahath-moab’s son or descendant. He obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:30). 3. According to the Apocrypha and the kjv, one of Bani’s sons (descendants) who also obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife (Ezr 10:38; 1 Esd 9:34). Because the list of Bani’s descendants is proportionally very long a...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":4079,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bebai (Person)","title_en":"Bebai (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BEBAI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BEBAI (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BEBAI (Person) 1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28). 2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.","summary_en":"BEBAI (Person) 1. Ancestor of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:11; 8:11; Neh 7:16). Some of the members of that family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:28). 2. Levitical leader of Israel who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15). This individual was perhaps a member of the family of #1 above.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":3317,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azgad","title_en":"Azgad","content_ro":"<h3>AZGAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZGAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZGAD 1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).","summary_en":"AZGAD 1. Ancestor of a group that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:12; Neh 7:17). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:15).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":618,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adonikam","title_en":"Adonikam","content_ro":"<h3>ADONIKAM<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADONIKAM<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADONIKAM Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.","summary_en":"ADONIKAM Head of a family whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:13; Neh 7:18). Ezra states the number of Adonikam’s family returning as 666; Nehemiah gives the number as 667 (as does 1 Esd 5:14), probably a scribal variation.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":588,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adin","title_en":"Adin","content_ro":"<h3>ADIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ADIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times.<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ADIN 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).","summary_en":"ADIN 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile. Comparison of various lists (Ezr 2:15; 8:6; Neh 7:20; 1 Esd 5:14; 8:32) shows that groups of Adin’s descendants returned at different times. 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:16).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":2138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Annias","title_en":"Annias","content_ro":"<h3>ANNIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANNIAS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANNIAS Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).","summary_en":"ANNIAS Ancestor of a family of 101 sons that undertook the rigorous migration from Babylon with Zerubbabel, according to the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:16). Parallel canonical texts omit this family (Ezr 2:16-20; Neh 7:21-25).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ater","title_en":"Ater","content_ro":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","summary_en":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16352,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hezekiah","title_en":"Hezekiah","content_ro":"<h3>HEZEKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Judah from 715–686 <span>BC<\/span>. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, began in the fourth year of his reign and that Samaria fell in the sixth year (2 Kgs 18:9-10), which would make his reign begin about 728 <span>BC<\/span> and end about 699 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian king Sennacherib besieged the fortified Judean cities during Hezekiah’s 14th year (2 Kgs 18:13), which would have been 714 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian records, however, indicate that Sennacherib came to the Assyrian throne in 705 <span>BC<\/span> and that his Judean campaign took place in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The most generally accepted solution to the discrepancy is that Hezekiah came to the throne in 715 <span>BC<\/span>, probably after a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, that began in 728 <span>BC<\/span>. That solution harmonizes with the statement that Sennacherib’s siege took place in the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign, or 701 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HezekiahsReligiousReforms\">Hezekiah’s Religious Reforms<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah came to the throne at a critical juncture in Judah’s history. Sargon II had taken Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and Judah was militarily weakened from wars and raids by surrounding nations during the reign of Ahaz. Perhaps motivated by warnings to the northern kingdom delivered by the prophets Amos and Hosea that punishment would come if Israel did not turn back to God, Hezekiah began his religious reforms soon after becoming king.<\/p>\n<p>In the first month of his reign, Hezekiah opened the temple doors and repaired them. He brought the Levites together and ordered them to sanctify themselves and the temple and to reinstate the religious ceremonies that had long been neglected. Hezekiah brought sacrifices, and the priestly temple service was restored (2 Chr 29).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah then sent invitations throughout Judah and Israel for the Passover celebration in Jerusalem (held a month later than the prescribed time because the priests and people could not be ready earlier). It was hoped that religious unification would be a prelude to political reunification of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. However, most of the northern tribes mocked the Judean messengers who brought the invitations, and only a few persons from the tribes of Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun went to Jerusalem for the celebration (2 Chr 30).<\/p>\n<p>After the Passover observance, the worshipers set about destroying the high places and altars. They broke the pillars and cut down the Asherim throughout Judah and Benjamin, and also went into Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr 31:1). Hezekiah even smashed the bronze serpent that Moses had made (Nm 21:6-9), for it had become an object of worship and was identified with a serpent deity, Nehushtan (2 Kgs 18:4). Because of his sweeping reforms, later generations said of Hezekiah, “There was never another king like him in the land of Judah, either before or after his time” (2 Kgs 18:5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAssyrianThreat\">The Assyrian Threat<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah knew that Assyria’s growing international dominance was a serious threat to his kingdom, but following his father’s policy of submission, Hezekiah did not attempt any resistance at first.<\/p>\n<p>The inscriptions of the Assyrian king Sargon II record his victorious campaign in 711 <span>BC<\/span> against a revolt by Aziru, king of Ashdod, who requested help from Egypt and Judah. Perhaps a prophecy received by Isaiah warned Hezekiah not to interfere with the Ashdod siege (Is 20), and so no punitive action was taken against Judah by Assyria. Sargon died in 705, and his son Sennacherib came to the throne. This triggered widespread rebellion throughout the Assyrian provinces. Hezekiah withheld tribute from the new Assyrian ruler and, taking advantage of the confused situation, made raids against the Philistines (2 Kgs 18:8). After subduing rebellious elements in the East, Sennacherib began his campaign against the “land of Hatti” (the Assyrian name for the western countries) in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. In preparation Hezekiah repaired Jerusalem’s city wall, raised towers on it, built another wall outside it, and strengthened the Millo in the City of David. He also stockpiled abundant quantities of weapons and shields (2 Chr 32:5). Knowing the necessity of an adequate water supply for a city under siege, Hezekiah had a 1,777-foot (542-meter) tunnel cut through solid rock from the spring of Gihon to the Siloam Pool to bring water into the city and to prevent the Assyrians from gaining access to the spring water outside the city (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:3-4). The Siloam inscription, carved inside the tunnel itself, records the completion of that remarkable conduit and is one of the oldest preserved examples of the Hebrew language.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib invaded Palestine and, after an extensive campaign, put down the rebellion there. That campaign is well documented in Assyrian records, including a description of his siege on Jerusalem in 701, and this documentation is supplemented by the biblical account (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; 2 Chr 32:1-22; Is 36–37). Sidon, the cities of Phoenicia, and the immediate neighbors of Judah (including Byblos, Arnon, Moab, Edom, and Ashdod) submitted to the Assyrians. Resistant Philistine cities were also taken. Sennacherib laid siege against Ekron, whose king, Padi (a loyal subject of Sennacherib), had been taken prisoner by his own subjects and turned over in chains to Hezekiah. A large Egyptian and Ethiopian army failed to relieve the Ekronites, who were defeated by the Assyrians in the vicinity of Eltekah. Ekron was captured, and Padi was recalled to his throne by Sennacherib.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib then turned his attention to the fortified cities of Judah and took them one by one (2 Kgs 18:13). Assyrian records claim that he captured 46 walled cities and countless villages, including Lachish and Debir (southwest of Jerusalem), 200,150 people, homes, cattle, and flocks without number. While Lachish was still under siege, Hezekiah saw that it was hopeless to resist and sent word to Sennacherib offering to surrender and pay whatever tribute he would impose. The Assyrian ruler demanded an enormous tribute of 300 talents of silver (800 talents according to Assyrian records, either an exaggerated figure or computed by a different standard) and 30 talents of gold. In order to pay that tribute, Hezekiah took all the silver in the temple and the royal treasuries, and stripped the gold from the temple doors and doorposts (2 Kgs 18:14-16). This treasure was sent to Sennacherib along with other gifts that, according to the Assyrian account, included some of Hezekiah’s own daughters as concubines.<\/p>\n<p>The account in 2 Kings 18:17–19:37 raises the question of whether there was another invasion of Judah at a later date, or whether this passage gives additional details about the invasion of 701. Although Hezekiah had already submitted and paid tribute, these verses describe further Assyrian demands. Those who believe it was a single invasion suggest that this is an account of the Assyrian deputation sent by Sennacherib to demand Jerusalem’s surrender while Lachish was still under siege. The deputation included the Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh (titles of court officials rather than personal names). They warned the citizens that their God was no more able to save them than the gods of other cities defeated by the Assyrians. In distress Hezekiah sent word to the prophet Isaiah, who assured the king that Sennacherib would hear a rumor and return to his own land and there die by the sword (2 Kgs 19:1-7). Shortly afterward Sennacherib received word of Babylon’s revolt in his eastern provinces, so he departed at once without taking Jerusalem. Assyrian records do not claim that Jerusalem was taken but only say that Hezekiah was “shut up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage.” Judah’s surrounding neighbors celebrated their deliverance and brought gifts of gratitude to Hezekiah (2 Chr 32:23).<\/p>\n<p>Later, the Assyrian king heard that Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, was advancing against him, so he sent another threatening message to Hezekiah, probably to warn him against making an alliance with Tirhakah. Hezekiah took the matter before the Lord and received word from Isaiah that the Assyrian king would return the same way he came and that Jerusalem would be untouched. Soon afterward, in a miraculous intervention by God, 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed, and the Assyrian monarch abandoned his plans to conquer Hezekiah. That embarrassing calamity understandably is not mentioned by the Assyrian records. In 681 Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons as Isaiah had predicted (2 Kgs 19:7, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime prior to 701, Hezekiah became seriously ill, and Isaiah told him to prepare for death. The king earnestly prayed for an extension of life, and God promised him 15 more years as well as deliverance from the Assyrians. Hezekiah asked Isaiah for a sign that he would be healed, and a shadow cast by the sun moved backward 10 steps contrary to its normal direction (2 Kgs 20:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after his recovery Hezekiah received a delegation with presents from Merodach-baladan of Babylon, ostensibly to congratulate Hezekiah on his return to health. The real object of the visit was probably to enlist Hezekiah as an ally in a conspiracy being formed against Assyria. The king showed the Babylonian envoys all the gold, silver, and other valuables he possessed. This act brought a warning from Isaiah that the day would come when all those treasures would be carried away to Babylon (2 Kgs 20:12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah lived the remainder of his life in peace and prosperity. It may have been during this time that he encouraged literary efforts in Judah, which included copying some of Solomon’s proverbs (Prv 25–29). Upon his death in 686, he was succeeded by his son Manasseh, who probably had become co-regent 10 years earlier.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV form of Hizkiah, Neariah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 3:23. <em>See<\/em> Hizkiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a family of exiles (the sons of Ater), 98 of whose descendants returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21; 10:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah, possibly King Hezekiah himself (Zep 1:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEZEKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Judah from 715–686 <span>BC<\/span>. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, began in the fourth year of his reign and that Samaria fell in the sixth year (2 Kgs 18:9-10), which would make his reign begin about 728 <span>BC<\/span> and end about 699 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian king Sennacherib besieged the fortified Judean cities during Hezekiah’s 14th year (2 Kgs 18:13), which would have been 714 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian records, however, indicate that Sennacherib came to the Assyrian throne in 705 <span>BC<\/span> and that his Judean campaign took place in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The most generally accepted solution to the discrepancy is that Hezekiah came to the throne in 715 <span>BC<\/span>, probably after a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, that began in 728 <span>BC<\/span>. That solution harmonizes with the statement that Sennacherib’s siege took place in the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign, or 701 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HezekiahsReligiousReforms\">Hezekiah’s Religious Reforms<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah came to the throne at a critical juncture in Judah’s history. Sargon II had taken Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and Judah was militarily weakened from wars and raids by surrounding nations during the reign of Ahaz. Perhaps motivated by warnings to the northern kingdom delivered by the prophets Amos and Hosea that punishment would come if Israel did not turn back to God, Hezekiah began his religious reforms soon after becoming king.<\/p>\n<p>In the first month of his reign, Hezekiah opened the temple doors and repaired them. He brought the Levites together and ordered them to sanctify themselves and the temple and to reinstate the religious ceremonies that had long been neglected. Hezekiah brought sacrifices, and the priestly temple service was restored (2 Chr 29).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah then sent invitations throughout Judah and Israel for the Passover celebration in Jerusalem (held a month later than the prescribed time because the priests and people could not be ready earlier). It was hoped that religious unification would be a prelude to political reunification of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. However, most of the northern tribes mocked the Judean messengers who brought the invitations, and only a few persons from the tribes of Asher, Manasseh, and Zebulun went to Jerusalem for the celebration (2 Chr 30).<\/p>\n<p>After the Passover observance, the worshipers set about destroying the high places and altars. They broke the pillars and cut down the Asherim throughout Judah and Benjamin, and also went into Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr 31:1). Hezekiah even smashed the bronze serpent that Moses had made (Nm 21:6-9), for it had become an object of worship and was identified with a serpent deity, Nehushtan (2 Kgs 18:4). Because of his sweeping reforms, later generations said of Hezekiah, “There was never another king like him in the land of Judah, either before or after his time” (2 Kgs 18:5, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAssyrianThreat\">The Assyrian Threat<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah knew that Assyria’s growing international dominance was a serious threat to his kingdom, but following his father’s policy of submission, Hezekiah did not attempt any resistance at first.<\/p>\n<p>The inscriptions of the Assyrian king Sargon II record his victorious campaign in 711 <span>BC<\/span> against a revolt by Aziru, king of Ashdod, who requested help from Egypt and Judah. Perhaps a prophecy received by Isaiah warned Hezekiah not to interfere with the Ashdod siege (Is 20), and so no punitive action was taken against Judah by Assyria. Sargon died in 705, and his son Sennacherib came to the throne. This triggered widespread rebellion throughout the Assyrian provinces. Hezekiah withheld tribute from the new Assyrian ruler and, taking advantage of the confused situation, made raids against the Philistines (2 Kgs 18:8). After subduing rebellious elements in the East, Sennacherib began his campaign against the “land of Hatti” (the Assyrian name for the western countries) in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. In preparation Hezekiah repaired Jerusalem’s city wall, raised towers on it, built another wall outside it, and strengthened the Millo in the City of David. He also stockpiled abundant quantities of weapons and shields (2 Chr 32:5). Knowing the necessity of an adequate water supply for a city under siege, Hezekiah had a 1,777-foot (542-meter) tunnel cut through solid rock from the spring of Gihon to the Siloam Pool to bring water into the city and to prevent the Assyrians from gaining access to the spring water outside the city (2 Kgs 20:20; 2 Chr 32:3-4). The Siloam inscription, carved inside the tunnel itself, records the completion of that remarkable conduit and is one of the oldest preserved examples of the Hebrew language.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib invaded Palestine and, after an extensive campaign, put down the rebellion there. That campaign is well documented in Assyrian records, including a description of his siege on Jerusalem in 701, and this documentation is supplemented by the biblical account (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; 2 Chr 32:1-22; Is 36–37). Sidon, the cities of Phoenicia, and the immediate neighbors of Judah (including Byblos, Arnon, Moab, Edom, and Ashdod) submitted to the Assyrians. Resistant Philistine cities were also taken. Sennacherib laid siege against Ekron, whose king, Padi (a loyal subject of Sennacherib), had been taken prisoner by his own subjects and turned over in chains to Hezekiah. A large Egyptian and Ethiopian army failed to relieve the Ekronites, who were defeated by the Assyrians in the vicinity of Eltekah. Ekron was captured, and Padi was recalled to his throne by Sennacherib.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib then turned his attention to the fortified cities of Judah and took them one by one (2 Kgs 18:13). Assyrian records claim that he captured 46 walled cities and countless villages, including Lachish and Debir (southwest of Jerusalem), 200,150 people, homes, cattle, and flocks without number. While Lachish was still under siege, Hezekiah saw that it was hopeless to resist and sent word to Sennacherib offering to surrender and pay whatever tribute he would impose. The Assyrian ruler demanded an enormous tribute of 300 talents of silver (800 talents according to Assyrian records, either an exaggerated figure or computed by a different standard) and 30 talents of gold. In order to pay that tribute, Hezekiah took all the silver in the temple and the royal treasuries, and stripped the gold from the temple doors and doorposts (2 Kgs 18:14-16). This treasure was sent to Sennacherib along with other gifts that, according to the Assyrian account, included some of Hezekiah’s own daughters as concubines.<\/p>\n<p>The account in 2 Kings 18:17–19:37 raises the question of whether there was another invasion of Judah at a later date, or whether this passage gives additional details about the invasion of 701. Although Hezekiah had already submitted and paid tribute, these verses describe further Assyrian demands. Those who believe it was a single invasion suggest that this is an account of the Assyrian deputation sent by Sennacherib to demand Jerusalem’s surrender while Lachish was still under siege. The deputation included the Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh (titles of court officials rather than personal names). They warned the citizens that their God was no more able to save them than the gods of other cities defeated by the Assyrians. In distress Hezekiah sent word to the prophet Isaiah, who assured the king that Sennacherib would hear a rumor and return to his own land and there die by the sword (2 Kgs 19:1-7). Shortly afterward Sennacherib received word of Babylon’s revolt in his eastern provinces, so he departed at once without taking Jerusalem. Assyrian records do not claim that Jerusalem was taken but only say that Hezekiah was “shut up in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage.” Judah’s surrounding neighbors celebrated their deliverance and brought gifts of gratitude to Hezekiah (2 Chr 32:23).<\/p>\n<p>Later, the Assyrian king heard that Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, was advancing against him, so he sent another threatening message to Hezekiah, probably to warn him against making an alliance with Tirhakah. Hezekiah took the matter before the Lord and received word from Isaiah that the Assyrian king would return the same way he came and that Jerusalem would be untouched. Soon afterward, in a miraculous intervention by God, 185,000 Assyrian troops were killed, and the Assyrian monarch abandoned his plans to conquer Hezekiah. That embarrassing calamity understandably is not mentioned by the Assyrian records. In 681 Sennacherib was killed by two of his sons as Isaiah had predicted (2 Kgs 19:7, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime prior to 701, Hezekiah became seriously ill, and Isaiah told him to prepare for death. The king earnestly prayed for an extension of life, and God promised him 15 more years as well as deliverance from the Assyrians. Hezekiah asked Isaiah for a sign that he would be healed, and a shadow cast by the sun moved backward 10 steps contrary to its normal direction (2 Kgs 20:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after his recovery Hezekiah received a delegation with presents from Merodach-baladan of Babylon, ostensibly to congratulate Hezekiah on his return to health. The real object of the visit was probably to enlist Hezekiah as an ally in a conspiracy being formed against Assyria. The king showed the Babylonian envoys all the gold, silver, and other valuables he possessed. This act brought a warning from Isaiah that the day would come when all those treasures would be carried away to Babylon (2 Kgs 20:12-19).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah lived the remainder of his life in peace and prosperity. It may have been during this time that he encouraged literary efforts in Judah, which included copying some of Solomon’s proverbs (Prv 25–29). Upon his death in 686, he was succeeded by his son Manasseh, who probably had become co-regent 10 years earlier.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV form of Hizkiah, Neariah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 3:23. <em>See<\/em> Hizkiah #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a family of exiles (the sons of Ater), 98 of whose descendants returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21; 10:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah, possibly King Hezekiah himself (Zep 1:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEZEKIAH 1. King of Judah from 715–686 BC. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8. Chronology Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern king...","summary_en":"HEZEKIAH 1. King of Judah from 715–686 BC. The account of Hezekiah’s reign is in 2 Kings 18:1–20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1–32:33, and Isaiah 36:1–39:8. Chronology Hezekiah succeeded to Judah’s throne at 25 and ruled for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1). His mother was Abi (2 Kgs 18:2; 2 Chr 29:1; “Abijah,” a longer form), a daughter of Zechariah. The chronology of Hezekiah’s reign is difficult to establish with certainty. The Bible says the Assyrian siege of Samaria, capital of the northern king...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":15443,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hashum","title_en":"Hashum","content_ro":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","summary_en":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":4604,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bezai","title_en":"Bezai","content_ro":"<h3>BEZAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BEZAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BEZAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","summary_en":"BEZAI 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:17; Neh 7:23). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":15379,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hariph","title_en":"Hariph","content_ro":"<h3>HARIPH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARIPH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARIPH Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).","summary_en":"HARIPH Ancestor of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 7:24). The name Jorah appears in the parallel list of Ezra 2:18. A representative of this family signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others (Neh 10:19).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20507,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jorah","title_en":"Jorah","content_ro":"<h3>JORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. <em>See<\/em> Hariph.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. <em>See<\/em> Hariph.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JORAH Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. See Hariph.","summary_en":"JORAH Alternate name for Hariph in Ezra 2:18 and Nehemiah 7:24. See Hariph.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":13751,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibbar","title_en":"Gibbar","content_ro":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBBAR<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","summary_en":"GIBBAR Forefather of a family that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:20). The parallel list in Nehemiah 7:25 reads “sons of Gibeon,” suggesting that “Gibbar” may be a textual corruption. Some support for this view lies in the fact that Ezra 2:21 begins listing descendants by their home city rather than by family.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13793,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibeonites Gibeon","title_en":"Gibeonites Gibeon","content_ro":"<h3>GIBEON, GIBEONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Place and its inhabitants figuring prominently in the OT from the days of Joshua to the days of Nehemiah, though both were in existence outside these time limits. The site may be identified with confidence as el-Jib some five and a half miles (8.9 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. This identification was proposed as early as 1838 by Edward Robinson. Since the excavation of this site in the years 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, and 1962, and the discovery of 31 jar handles bearing the name of Gibeon, the identification is placed beyond doubt. Certain geographical and chronological considerations also support this. The location of Gibeon, north of Jerusalem and accessible to that city in the days of David, Solomon, and Jeremiah, as well as its location southwest of Ai combine geographically to support this identification. Further, the periods of occupation at el-Jib revealed by excavation are parallel to historical data supplied by the OT.<\/p>\n<p>The first mention of Gibeon and its inhabitants comes in Joshua 9 and 10 in the days of Joshua, perhaps about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>. Hearing of the success of the people of Israel at Jericho and Ai, the people of Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim plotted to obtain a covenant of peace from them. By pretending that they had come from afar and displaying worn-out clothing and footwear as well as dried bread, they were able to deceive Joshua into making a treaty with them. When their deception was discovered, they were sentenced to chop wood and carry water for the Israelites (Jos 9:21-27). Neighboring groups of people from Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, led by Adoni-zedek king of Jerusalem, launched an attack on Gibeon because of its defection to Joshua. The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua, and the Israelites made a forced march from Gilgal to assist them. The enemies of Gibeon were driven down the road to Beth-horon. Their rout was completed with the assistance of hailstones. In that day the sun stood still over Gibeon (10:9-13). Only Gibeon made peace with the incoming Israelites (11:19). In due course the town became part of Benjamin’s territory (18:25; 21:17).<\/p>\n\n<p>In the days before David was king, Saul’s general encountered some of David’s men at Gibeon and engaged in an unusual contest at the pool of Gibeon. Twelve men from each side fought and were all thrust through by the swords of their opponents (2 Sm 2:12-17). This encounter was followed by a further skirmish in which David’s men were successful (vv 18-32). Later, David’s nephew Amasa, captain of the rebel army of Absalom, was attacked by Joab at the “great stone which is in Gibeon” (20:8) and left to die in the highway in his blood. In David’s time also, seven sons of Saul were executed “at Gibeon on the mountain of the Lord” (21:1-9) in retribution for Saul’s violation of the ancient covenant between Gibeon and Israel when he slew men of Gibeon (vv 1-6).<\/p>\n<p>There was an important high place still operating at Gibeon in David’s time. The tabernacle of the Lord rested there, and an altar of burnt offering as well (1 Chr 16:39; 21:29). It was at Gibeon, according to 1 Kings 3:3-9, that Solomon had a dream in which Solomon asked for wisdom to govern Israel well (cf. 2 Chr 1:2-13). A second time God appeared to Solomon at Gibeon to assure him that his prayer had been heard and to urge him to walk in God’s ways (1 Kgs 9:2-9). Gibeon was among the cities taken by Pharaoh Shishak in the second half of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Presumably Gibeon remained an important center during the days of the kings. There was a prophet in Gibeon in the days of Jeremiah, although he prophesied falsely (Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Some of the Gibeonites went into exile in Babylon and a small group returned (Neh 7:25) and assisted Nehemiah in repairing the Jerusalem wall (3:7-8). Later still, Josephus relates that Cestius pitched his camp at Gibeon on his march to Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 66 (<em>War<\/em> 2.515-516). Biblical references cover a period from about 1200 <span>BC<\/span> to about 445 <span>BC<\/span>, in archaeological terms from the beginning of the Iron I period, through the Iron II period, and into the Persian or Iron III period. We would expect, therefore, to find evidence for at least these periods in an excavation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Gibbar.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIBEON, GIBEONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Place and its inhabitants figuring prominently in the OT from the days of Joshua to the days of Nehemiah, though both were in existence outside these time limits. The site may be identified with confidence as el-Jib some five and a half miles (8.9 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. This identification was proposed as early as 1838 by Edward Robinson. Since the excavation of this site in the years 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, and 1962, and the discovery of 31 jar handles bearing the name of Gibeon, the identification is placed beyond doubt. Certain geographical and chronological considerations also support this. The location of Gibeon, north of Jerusalem and accessible to that city in the days of David, Solomon, and Jeremiah, as well as its location southwest of Ai combine geographically to support this identification. Further, the periods of occupation at el-Jib revealed by excavation are parallel to historical data supplied by the OT.<\/p>\n<p>The first mention of Gibeon and its inhabitants comes in Joshua 9 and 10 in the days of Joshua, perhaps about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>. Hearing of the success of the people of Israel at Jericho and Ai, the people of Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim plotted to obtain a covenant of peace from them. By pretending that they had come from afar and displaying worn-out clothing and footwear as well as dried bread, they were able to deceive Joshua into making a treaty with them. When their deception was discovered, they were sentenced to chop wood and carry water for the Israelites (Jos 9:21-27). Neighboring groups of people from Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, led by Adoni-zedek king of Jerusalem, launched an attack on Gibeon because of its defection to Joshua. The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua, and the Israelites made a forced march from Gilgal to assist them. The enemies of Gibeon were driven down the road to Beth-horon. Their rout was completed with the assistance of hailstones. In that day the sun stood still over Gibeon (10:9-13). Only Gibeon made peace with the incoming Israelites (11:19). In due course the town became part of Benjamin’s territory (18:25; 21:17).<\/p>\n\n<p>In the days before David was king, Saul’s general encountered some of David’s men at Gibeon and engaged in an unusual contest at the pool of Gibeon. Twelve men from each side fought and were all thrust through by the swords of their opponents (2 Sm 2:12-17). This encounter was followed by a further skirmish in which David’s men were successful (vv 18-32). Later, David’s nephew Amasa, captain of the rebel army of Absalom, was attacked by Joab at the “great stone which is in Gibeon” (20:8) and left to die in the highway in his blood. In David’s time also, seven sons of Saul were executed “at Gibeon on the mountain of the Lord” (21:1-9) in retribution for Saul’s violation of the ancient covenant between Gibeon and Israel when he slew men of Gibeon (vv 1-6).<\/p>\n<p>There was an important high place still operating at Gibeon in David’s time. The tabernacle of the Lord rested there, and an altar of burnt offering as well (1 Chr 16:39; 21:29). It was at Gibeon, according to 1 Kings 3:3-9, that Solomon had a dream in which Solomon asked for wisdom to govern Israel well (cf. 2 Chr 1:2-13). A second time God appeared to Solomon at Gibeon to assure him that his prayer had been heard and to urge him to walk in God’s ways (1 Kgs 9:2-9). Gibeon was among the cities taken by Pharaoh Shishak in the second half of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Presumably Gibeon remained an important center during the days of the kings. There was a prophet in Gibeon in the days of Jeremiah, although he prophesied falsely (Jer 28:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Some of the Gibeonites went into exile in Babylon and a small group returned (Neh 7:25) and assisted Nehemiah in repairing the Jerusalem wall (3:7-8). Later still, Josephus relates that Cestius pitched his camp at Gibeon on his march to Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 66 (<em>War<\/em> 2.515-516). Biblical references cover a period from about 1200 <span>BC<\/span> to about 445 <span>BC<\/span>, in archaeological terms from the beginning of the Iron I period, through the Iron II period, and into the Persian or Iron III period. We would expect, therefore, to find evidence for at least these periods in an excavation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Gibbar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIBEON, GIBEONITES Place and its inhabitants figuring prominently in the OT from the days of Joshua to the days of Nehemiah, though both were in existence outside these time limits. The site may be identified with confidence as el-Jib some five and a half miles (8.9 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. This identification was proposed as early as 1838 by Edward Robinson. Since the excavation of this site in the years 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, and 1962, and the discovery of 31 jar handles bearing the...","summary_en":"GIBEON, GIBEONITES Place and its inhabitants figuring prominently in the OT from the days of Joshua to the days of Nehemiah, though both were in existence outside these time limits. The site may be identified with confidence as el-Jib some five and a half miles (8.9 kilometers) north of Jerusalem. This identification was proposed as early as 1838 by Edward Robinson. Since the excavation of this site in the years 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, and 1962, and the discovery of 31 jar handles bearing the...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":4507,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethlehem","title_en":"Bethlehem","content_ro":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","summary_en":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27391,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Netophathite Netophah","title_en":"Netophathite Netophah","content_ro":"<h3>NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Nehemiah 12:28 says that temple singers were gathered from the villages surrounding Jerusalem and from the villages of the Netophathites. Both of these references suggest that Netophah was the name of a district and not just of a town.<\/p>\n<p>The linking of Netophah with Bethlehem (see 1 Chr 2:54; Neh 7:26) indicates that it was in that vicinity. The actual site of Netophah is not known; however, the most probable location is the modern Khirbet Bedd Faluh, three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE<\/h3>\n<p>Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22).<\/p>\n<p>First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Nehemiah 12:28 says that temple singers were gathered from the villages surrounding Jerusalem and from the villages of the Netophathites. Both of these references suggest that Netophah was the name of a district and not just of a town.<\/p>\n<p>The linking of Netophah with Bethlehem (see 1 Chr 2:54; Neh 7:26) indicates that it was in that vicinity. The actual site of Netophah is not known; however, the most probable location is the modern Khirbet Bedd Faluh, three miles (4.8 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 BC, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22). First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Neh...","summary_en":"NETOPHAH, NETOPHATHITE Home and designation for two of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sm 23:28-29; 1 Chr 11:30; 27:13-15). Seraiah, one of the captains who came to Gedaliah, the governor in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon in 586 BC, was a Netophathite (2 Kgs 25:23; Jer 40:8). Fifty-six men of Netophah are mentioned as among the exiles who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Ezr 2:22). First Chronicles 9:16 speaks of Levites who lived in the villages of Netophathites, while Neh...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":3328,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azmaveth (Place)","title_en":"Azmaveth (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>AZMAVETH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AZMAVETH (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AZMAVETH (Place) Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.","summary_en":"AZMAVETH (Place) Town near Anathoth. Forty-two men from the town returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:24; “Beth-azmaveth,” Neh 7:28). Later, Azmaveth supplied singers to help celebrate the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:29). It has been identified as Hizmeh, a site five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4418,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Azmaveth","title_en":"Beth-Azmaveth","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-AZMAVETH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Azmaveth, a town near Jerusalem, in Nehemiah 7:28. <em>See<\/em> Azmaveth (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-AZMAVETH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Azmaveth, a town near Jerusalem, in Nehemiah 7:28. <em>See<\/em> Azmaveth (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-AZMAVETH Alternate name for Azmaveth, a town near Jerusalem, in Nehemiah 7:28. See Azmaveth (Place).","summary_en":"BETH-AZMAVETH Alternate name for Azmaveth, a town near Jerusalem, in Nehemiah 7:28. See Azmaveth (Place).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":1304,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ammidians","title_en":"Ammidians","content_ro":"<h3>AMMIDIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMMIDIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMMIDIANS Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 BC (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.","summary_en":"AMMIDIANS Name used in a list of towns identifying groups of exiles that returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel around 538 BC (1 Esd 5:20). Corresponding lists in Ezra 2:25-26 and Nehemiah 7:29-30 make no mention of a group from such a place.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4119,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beeroth","title_en":"Beeroth","content_ro":"<h3>BEEROTH<\/h3>\n<p>One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have both been suggested as possible locations for Beeroth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEEROTH<\/h3>\n<p>One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have both been suggested as possible locations for Beeroth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEEROTH One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have bot...","summary_en":"BEEROTH One of four Hivite cities that secured Joshua’s promise not to destroy them when the Israelites marched into Canaan (Jos 9:17). Beeroth was later identified as a city in Benjamin’s territory (Jos 18:25; 2 Sm 4:2-3). It was the home of Rechab and Baanah, assassins of King Ishbosheth (2 Sm 4:2-9), and of Naharai, Joab’s armor bearer (2 Sm 23:37; 1 Chr 11:39). The city was repopulated after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). El Bireh near Ramallah and Nebi Samwil north of Jerusalem have bot...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21617,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kephirah","title_en":"Kephirah","content_ro":"<h3>KEPHIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEPHIRAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEPHIRAH Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.","summary_en":"KEPHIRAH Hivite city included in a treaty with Joshua that the Gibeonites secured by deception (Jos 9:17). When the Israelites conquered the land of Canaan, Kephirah became the property of Benjamin’s tribe (18:26). Many inhabitants of this city came back to Judea with the repatriates after the exile (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29). The site is now identified as Khirbet Kefireh, located southwest of ancient Gibeon.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22169,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kiriath-Jearim","title_en":"Kiriath-Jearim","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","summary_en":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":13000,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaba*","title_en":"Gaba*","content_ro":"<h3>GABA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. <em>See<\/em> Geba.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GABA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. <em>See<\/em> Geba.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GABA* KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. See Geba.","summary_en":"GABA* KJV spelling of the Benjamite city, Geba, in Joshua 18:24, Ezra 2:26, and Nehemiah 7:30. See Geba.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32364,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":27140,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebo (Person)","title_en":"Nebo (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBO (Person) Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.","summary_en":"NEBO (Person) Forefather of 52 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:29; Neh 7:33), 7 of whom were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:43). Some suggest that Nebo refers to a town in Benjamin’s tribe from which some inhabitants went into exile to Babylon.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":10247,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elam (Person)","title_en":"Elam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, Shecaniah, Elam’s descendant, urged Ezra to command the sons of Israel to divorce their foreign wives (10:2); a number from Elam’s house eventually did so (v 26).<\/li>\n<li>5. Another forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah (Ezr 2:31; Neh 7:34).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the chiefs of Israel who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:14).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","summary_en":"ELAM (Person) 1. Firstborn son of Shem and a grandson of Noah (Gn 10:22; 1 Chr 1:17). 2. Benjamite and the son of Shashak (1 Chr 8:24). 3. Korahite Levite and the fifth son of Kore from the house of Asaph (1 Chr 26:3). 4. Forefather of 1,254 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:7; Neh 7:12). Later, 71 members of Elam’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 BC; Ezr 8:7). In postexilic Judah, She...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"36":[{"id":19139,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jericho","title_en":"Jericho","content_ro":"<h3>JERICHO<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was located on the west side of the Jordan River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the southernmost fords and about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of the Dead Sea. Being in the broad part of the plain of the Jordan, it lies nearly 1,000 feet (305 meters) below sea level and about 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) below Jerusalem, which was a mere 17 miles (27 kilometers) away. This simple topographical fact explains the incidental words in Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, “down from Jerusalem to Jericho” (Lk 10:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Prebiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>Jericho was a large and thriving city for centuries, even millennia, before the Bible first mentions it in connection with the exodus from Egypt. In fact, Jericho is one of the oldest cities in the world, with remains dating to and before the Neolithic Age 10,000 years ago.<\/p>\n<p>For three reasons primitive people would have chosen this site, first as a settlement and eventually as a key city: (1) It has a copious spring, now called Elisha’s Fountain (cf. 2 Kgs 2:18-22). (2) It has a warm climate in the winter, although “hot” describes it in the summer. (3) It is strategically located at a Jordan ford and at the base of several routes leading westward to the foothills.<\/p>\n<p>The comings and goings of various populations can be reconstructed only sketchily from noninscriptional archaeological data. The civilizations grew more complex over the years, going from a simple food-gathering economy at first to the relatively complex urban society, complete with king, soldiers, and guest houses, that Joshua encountered. The first certain identification of its inhabitants occurs in Numbers 13:29: “The Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites dwell in the hill country; and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and along the Jordan” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The Jericho of the OT is best known as the first city taken by the invading Israelites through the miracle of the falling walls. Having spent some time on the east bank of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63), the Israelites targeted it as the first military objective in the Conquest. Joshua sent spies to reconnoiter the land and the city. Rahab the harlot took them in and later engineered their escape. For her cooperation, she and her family were spared when Israel destroyed the city (Jos 2, 6). The fall of the city itself occurred after the Israelites had marched around it in silence, except for the continual blowing of trumpets, once a day for six days and then seven times on the seventh day. Then, as the priests blew the trumpets, the people shouted and the walls collapsed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua laid a curse on anyone who might rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26). The curse was fulfilled about 500 years later when Hiel rebuilt the city at the cost of two of his sons (1 Kgs 16:34).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was in the territory of Benjamin but right on the border with the territory of Ephraim to the north (Jos 16:1, 7; 18:12, 21) and appears in scattered incidents throughout the rest of the OT. In 2 Samuel 10:5 (see also 1 Chr 19:5) David had his humiliated ambassadors wait there until their beards grew back. It served as a kind of headquarters for Elisha and apparently was where a “company of the prophets” lived (2 Kgs 2:5; cf. 1 Sm 10:5). During the time of Ahaz, a return of prisoners took place there (2 Chr 28:15). When Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the reigning king, Zedekiah, fled to near Jericho but was caught by the Babylonians, who later put out his eyes at Riblah in Syria (2 Kgs 25:5; Jer 39:5; 52:8). The last OT references to Jericho are in the census lists of Ezra (Ezr 2:34) and Nehemiah (Neh 7:36). Men from Jericho also helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (3:2).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>First, it must be understood that the Jericho of NT times was built by Herod more than a mile to the south of the OT site, at the mouth of the Wadi Qilt. It is possible to sort out the healing of the blind men episodes in the synoptic Gospels by understanding that Jesus was passing from the site of ancient Jericho (Mt 20:29; Mk 10:46) and approaching Herodian Jericho (Lk 18:35). The modern city of Jericho includes both these sites. As Jesus passed through Jericho (19:1) he met and ate with Zacchaeus, the wealthy chief tax collector of the new Roman Jericho. The city also figures in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37).<\/p>\n<h5>Postbiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>While ancient Jericho was of small consequence after its destruction under Joshua, the Jericho of Herod was a city of beauty and importance. But even this city fell into decay with the decline of Roman influence in the Middle East. Most of what we know of the city until modern times comes from the writings of pilgrims to the Holy Land. They usually report seeing certain things of biblical significance, such as the tree that Zacchaeus climbed, but they also report that Jericho was a squalid, wretched Muslim village. And such it has been until relatively recent times, when it grew in size and importance as a major West Bank city.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERICHO<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was located on the west side of the Jordan River about five miles (8 kilometers) from the southernmost fords and about ten miles (16 kilometers) northwest of the Dead Sea. Being in the broad part of the plain of the Jordan, it lies nearly 1,000 feet (305 meters) below sea level and about 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) below Jerusalem, which was a mere 17 miles (27 kilometers) away. This simple topographical fact explains the incidental words in Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, “down from Jerusalem to Jericho” (Lk 10:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Prebiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>Jericho was a large and thriving city for centuries, even millennia, before the Bible first mentions it in connection with the exodus from Egypt. In fact, Jericho is one of the oldest cities in the world, with remains dating to and before the Neolithic Age 10,000 years ago.<\/p>\n<p>For three reasons primitive people would have chosen this site, first as a settlement and eventually as a key city: (1) It has a copious spring, now called Elisha’s Fountain (cf. 2 Kgs 2:18-22). (2) It has a warm climate in the winter, although “hot” describes it in the summer. (3) It is strategically located at a Jordan ford and at the base of several routes leading westward to the foothills.<\/p>\n<p>The comings and goings of various populations can be reconstructed only sketchily from noninscriptional archaeological data. The civilizations grew more complex over the years, going from a simple food-gathering economy at first to the relatively complex urban society, complete with king, soldiers, and guest houses, that Joshua encountered. The first certain identification of its inhabitants occurs in Numbers 13:29: “The Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites dwell in the hill country; and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and along the Jordan” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The Jericho of the OT is best known as the first city taken by the invading Israelites through the miracle of the falling walls. Having spent some time on the east bank of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Nm 22:1; 26:3, 63), the Israelites targeted it as the first military objective in the Conquest. Joshua sent spies to reconnoiter the land and the city. Rahab the harlot took them in and later engineered their escape. For her cooperation, she and her family were spared when Israel destroyed the city (Jos 2, 6). The fall of the city itself occurred after the Israelites had marched around it in silence, except for the continual blowing of trumpets, once a day for six days and then seven times on the seventh day. Then, as the priests blew the trumpets, the people shouted and the walls collapsed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua laid a curse on anyone who might rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26). The curse was fulfilled about 500 years later when Hiel rebuilt the city at the cost of two of his sons (1 Kgs 16:34).<\/p>\n<p>Jericho was in the territory of Benjamin but right on the border with the territory of Ephraim to the north (Jos 16:1, 7; 18:12, 21) and appears in scattered incidents throughout the rest of the OT. In 2 Samuel 10:5 (see also 1 Chr 19:5) David had his humiliated ambassadors wait there until their beards grew back. It served as a kind of headquarters for Elisha and apparently was where a “company of the prophets” lived (2 Kgs 2:5; cf. 1 Sm 10:5). During the time of Ahaz, a return of prisoners took place there (2 Chr 28:15). When Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, the reigning king, Zedekiah, fled to near Jericho but was caught by the Babylonians, who later put out his eyes at Riblah in Syria (2 Kgs 25:5; Jer 39:5; 52:8). The last OT references to Jericho are in the census lists of Ezra (Ezr 2:34) and Nehemiah (Neh 7:36). Men from Jericho also helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (3:2).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>First, it must be understood that the Jericho of NT times was built by Herod more than a mile to the south of the OT site, at the mouth of the Wadi Qilt. It is possible to sort out the healing of the blind men episodes in the synoptic Gospels by understanding that Jesus was passing from the site of ancient Jericho (Mt 20:29; Mk 10:46) and approaching Herodian Jericho (Lk 18:35). The modern city of Jericho includes both these sites. As Jesus passed through Jericho (19:1) he met and ate with Zacchaeus, the wealthy chief tax collector of the new Roman Jericho. The city also figures in the parable of the Good Samaritan (10:30-37).<\/p>\n<h5>Postbiblical Record<\/h5>\n<p>While ancient Jericho was of small consequence after its destruction under Joshua, the Jericho of Herod was a city of beauty and importance. But even this city fell into decay with the decline of Roman influence in the Middle East. Most of what we know of the city until modern times comes from the writings of pilgrims to the Holy Land. They usually report seeing certain things of biblical significance, such as the tree that Zacchaeus climbed, but they also report that Jericho was a squalid, wretched Muslim village. And such it has been until relatively recent times, when it grew in size and importance as a major West Bank city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERICHO Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15). Jericho was located on ...","summary_en":"JERICHO Ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell, assuming that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis occasioned the name of the place. The OT occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (e.g., Dt 34:3; 2 Chr 28:15). Jericho was located on ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":14981,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hadid","title_en":"Hadid","content_ro":"<h3>HADID<\/h3>\n<p>City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HADID<\/h3>\n<p>City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HADID City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.","summary_en":"HADID City in Benjamin (Neh 11:31-35) mentioned with Lod and Ono (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37) as the home of over 720 Benjamites returning from the Babylonian captivity (Neh 11:34). In 1 Maccabees 12:38 and 13:13 the place is identified with Adida, which was fortified by Simon Maccabeus and later by Vespasian. A more likely suggestion identifies it with the modern site of el-Haditheth, about three to four miles (4.8 to 6.4 kilometers) northeast of Lydda.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23362,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lod","title_en":"Lod","content_ro":"<h3>LOD<\/h3>\n<p>City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 <span>BC<\/span>, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is included in the list of Benjamite settlements (Neh 11:35). The history of the city can be traced continuously from Maccabean times, through the Roman period, including the first and second Jewish wars against the Romans, to the Byzantine and Crusader periods, through to modern times.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era Jewish sources emphasize the importance of the city, at that time named Lydda. It had a large market and was noted for the raising of cattle. Textile, dyeing, and pottery industries flourished there. And it was the seat of a Sanhedrin; famous Talmudic scholars taught there. This, then, was the kind of bustling, flourishing community that existed when Peter visited the city and ministered to its Christians (Acts 9:32-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LOD<\/h3>\n<p>City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 <span>BC<\/span>, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is included in the list of Benjamite settlements (Neh 11:35). The history of the city can be traced continuously from Maccabean times, through the Roman period, including the first and second Jewish wars against the Romans, to the Byzantine and Crusader periods, through to modern times.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era Jewish sources emphasize the importance of the city, at that time named Lydda. It had a large market and was noted for the raising of cattle. Textile, dyeing, and pottery industries flourished there. And it was the seat of a Sanhedrin; famous Talmudic scholars taught there. This, then, was the kind of bustling, flourishing community that existed when Peter visited the city and ministered to its Christians (Acts 9:32-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LOD City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 BC, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is in...","summary_en":"LOD City on the coastal plain of Palestine. The modern city, called Ludd, is located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southeast of Tel Aviv. The name of the city first occurs in a list of Canaanite towns that goes back to 1465 BC, to the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III, who supplied the list. The founder of the city is said to have been Shemed, a Benjamite (1 Chr 8:12). It is included in a list of places that were resettled by returning exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37), and is in...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28482,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ono","title_en":"Ono","content_ro":"<h3>ONO<\/h3>\n<p>Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ONO<\/h3>\n<p>Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ONO Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","summary_en":"ONO Benjaminite town built by Shemed (1 Chr 8:12). Some of its inhabitants returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:33; Neh 7:37). Its location was variously known as the plain of Ono (Neh 6:2) or as the valley of craftsmen (11:35). Ono is identified with Kefr ‘Ana, seven miles (11.3 kilometers) southeast of Joppa.","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"38":[{"id":15453,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hassenuah","title_en":"Hassenuah","content_ro":"<h3>HASSENUAH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, <span>kjv<\/span> “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). <em>See<\/em> Senaah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASSENUAH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, <span>kjv<\/span> “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). <em>See<\/em> Senaah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASSENUAH Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, kjv “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). See Senaah.","summary_en":"HASSENUAH Ancestor of a Benjamite family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, kjv “Senuah”); perhaps alternately called Senaah (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38), and Hassenaah (Neh 3:3). See Senaah.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Senaah","title_en":"Senaah","content_ro":"<h3>SENAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Senuah”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hassenuah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SENAAH<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where <span>kjv<\/span> reads “Senuah”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hassenuah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SENAAH Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where kjv reads “Senuah”). See also Hassenuah.","summary_en":"SENAAH Father of a family of Israelites who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the exile (Ezr 2:35; Neh 7:38). They helped Nehemiah rebuild part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:3; Hassenaah is an alternate spelling for Senaah). Hassenuah is a possible variant for Senaah (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:9, where kjv reads “Senuah”). See also Hassenuah.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"39":[{"id":18627,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jedaiah","title_en":"Jedaiah","content_ro":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (<span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10).<\/li>\n<li>3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families listed below are probably a part of this priestly line, but their exact relationships are difficult to determine.<\/li>\n<li>4. Provincial priest who agreed to resettle in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:10; cf. v 2).<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned with Zerubbabel after the exile (Neh 12:6-7). In the next generation this was the name of a family (v 21).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the exiles taken by Zechariah as witness to the symbolic crowning of Joshua (<span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). He may be the same as #4 or #5 above. He came back from captivity bringing gifts for the temple in the days of the high priest Joshua (Zec 6:10-14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","summary_en":"JEDAIAH 1. Shimri’s son and the father of Allon. He is listed in the genealogical tables of the Simeonites who settled in the valley of Gedor in Hezekiah’s time (1 Chr 4:37). 2. Harumaph’s son, who helped repair the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:10). 3. Aaron’s descendant and head of the second of the 24 priestly divisions for temple service in David’s time (1 Chr 24:7). His descendants are listed among the returned exiles (1 Chr 9:10; Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). The individuals and families...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:39","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:39","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","summary_en":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:39","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:39","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","summary_en":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:39","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:39","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","summary_en":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:39","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:39","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:39-60<\/strong> Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate <em>priests<\/em> and <em>Levites<\/em> served in God’s Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","summary_en":"7:39-60 Nehemiah wanted to be sure that only legitimate priests and Levites served in God’s Temple.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"40":[{"id":17254,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Immer (Person)","title_en":"Immer (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMMER (Person) Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).","summary_en":"IMMER (Person) Priest in the time of David. He became the ancestral head of a house of priests: Pashhur, the priest who had Jeremiah arrested and placed in stocks, was a descendant of Immer (Jer 20:1). There were 1,052 priests of the subclan of Immer who returned from the exile (1 Chr 9:12; Ezr 2:37; Neh 7:40). A descendant of Immer helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:29) and 128 priests under Amashsai (also a descendant) helped resettle the city and tend the temple (Neh 11:13-14).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"41":[{"id":28925,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pashhur, Pashur*","title_en":"Pashhur, Pashur*","content_ro":"<h3>PASHHUR, pashur*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>3. Immer’s son and the priest and chief officer of the sanctuary during the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Frustrated with Jeremiah’s predictions of doom for Jerusalem, Pashhur beat him and had him put in stocks at the temple’s Benjamin Gate. Upon his release, Jeremiah exposed Pashhur’s false prophecies and foretold his exile and death in Babylon (Jer 20:1-6).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Malkijah and perhaps the grandson of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 21:1; 38:1; cf. 38:6). The king sent Pashhur, with Zephaniah the priest, to Jeremiah, requesting that he ask the Lord to deal favorably with Judah. It was in his father’s cistern that Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of Gedaliah. Gedaliah—with Shephatiah, Jucal, and Pashhur—opposed Jeremiah and attempted to kill him by imprisoning him in Malkijah’s cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PASHHUR, pashur*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>3. Immer’s son and the priest and chief officer of the sanctuary during the reign of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Frustrated with Jeremiah’s predictions of doom for Jerusalem, Pashhur beat him and had him put in stocks at the temple’s Benjamin Gate. Upon his release, Jeremiah exposed Pashhur’s false prophecies and foretold his exile and death in Babylon (Jer 20:1-6).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Malkijah and perhaps the grandson of King Zedekiah of Judah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 21:1; 38:1; cf. 38:6). The king sent Pashhur, with Zephaniah the priest, to Jeremiah, requesting that he ask the Lord to deal favorably with Judah. It was in his father’s cistern that Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of Gedaliah. Gedaliah—with Shephatiah, Jucal, and Pashhur—opposed Jeremiah and attempted to kill him by imprisoning him in Malkijah’s cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PASHHUR, pashur* 1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22). 2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3). 3. Immer’s son and the pries...","summary_en":"PASHHUR, pashur* 1. Forefather of a family of priests who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:38; Neh 7:41). He was perhaps also the son of Malkijah and the grandfather of Adaiah the priest. Adaiah served in the sanctuary during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:12). Six of Pashhur’s sons were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives (Ezr 10:22). 2. One of the priests who with Nehemiah set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:3). 3. Immer’s son and the pries...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"42":[{"id":15375,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harim","title_en":"Harim","content_ro":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HARIM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 above. Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Malkijah. Malkijah repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during Nehemiah’s time (Neh 3:11). This Harim could be the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:3; Hebrew “Rehum,” see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). His son (or grandson) Adna is listed as a leading priest during the high priesthood of Joiakim (12:15). Later, under Ezra, a representative of the family (probably related to #3 above) signed the covenant of faithfulness to God (10:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","summary_en":"HARIM 1. Priest whom King David appointed to official duties in the temple (1 Chr 24:8). 2. Ancestor of a Jewish family who returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:32; Neh 10:5). Members of this family were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:31), but they divorced their wives and a representative of the clan signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh 10:27). 3. Ancestor of a family of priests who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:39; Neh 7:42). Some identify him with #1 ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"43":[{"id":16503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hodaviah","title_en":"Hodaviah","content_ro":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","summary_en":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16505,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hodevah*","title_en":"Hodevah*","content_ro":"<h3>HODEVAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of Hodaviah in Nehemiah 7:43 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HODEVAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of Hodaviah in Nehemiah 7:43 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HODEVAH* Alternate spelling of Hodaviah in Nehemiah 7:43 (see nlt mg). See Hodaviah #4.","summary_en":"HODEVAH* Alternate spelling of Hodaviah in Nehemiah 7:43 (see nlt mg). See Hodaviah #4.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19348,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21010,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judah (Person)","title_en":"Judah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his first two sons, Er and Onan, were divinely killed in Canaan for their disobedience (Gn 46:12). Judah became the founder of one of Israel’s 12 tribes (Nm 1:26-27).<\/li>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gn 38:6-30), Judah showed firm resolve in taking personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and acting as intercessor for his brothers before Joseph (44:14-18). At the time of Jacob’s blessing, Judah was granted the birthright privileges of the firstborn; the leadership of Jacob’s family would come through Judah’s seed, as would the promised Messiah of Abraham’s covenant (49:8-12). Later, Judah’s family was praised at the time of Ruth’s engagement to Boaz (Ru 4:12), and both the Davidic lines of kings (1 Chr 2:1-15; 3:1-24) and Jesus Christ’s ancestors traced their descent from Judah (Mt 1:2-3; Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Judah, Tribe of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of Levites who assisted Jeshua, the high priest, with rebuilding the temple during the postexilic era (Ezr 3:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is alternately called Hodaviah in Ezra 2:40 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43. <em>See<\/em> Hodaviah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite, son of Hassenuah, who was second in command over the city of Jerusalem during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the leaders of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:8).<\/li>\n<li>6. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>7. One of the priests who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:36). He is perhaps identical with #5 above.<\/li>\n<li>8. Joseph’s son, father of Simeon and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:30). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","summary_en":"JUDAH (Person) 1. Fourth of Jacob’s 12 sons (Gn 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1) and the fourth son born to Jacob by Leah, who, overjoyed with the thought of bearing Jacob another son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gn 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua the Canaanitess (Gn 38:3-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins Perez and Zerah by Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gn 38:29-30; 1 Chr 2:4). He eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Ex 1:2), although his fi...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21490,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kadmiel","title_en":"Kadmiel","content_ro":"<h3>KADMIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KADMIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KADMIEL Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).","summary_en":"KADMIEL Head of a Levite family who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). His name appears in the list of those who supervised the temple rebuilding project (Ezr 3:9), participated in sealing the covenant (Neh 10:9), and were prominent in the praise service (9:4-5; 12:24).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"44":[{"id":2848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asaph","title_en":"Asaph","content_ro":"<h3>ASAPH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, <span>tlb<\/span>) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he ministered daily before the ark (1 Chr 16:37; 25:6, 9; 1 Esd 1:15; 5:27, 59). He was also described as David’s private prophet (1 Chr 25:1-2). Asaph’s name appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 50 and 73–83 and in the guild he established, “the sons of Asaph” (1 Chr 25:1; 2 Chr 35:15; Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Joah’s father. Joah was the recorder (court historian or royal scribe) in King Hezekiah’s administration (2 Kgs 18:18, 27; Is 36:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple guard or gatekeeper, seemingly the same person as Ebiasaph (1 Chr 9:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Keeper of the king’s forest in Palestine under Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Neh 2:8). Nehemiah asked this Asaph for timber to rebuild the wall, gates, and structures of Jerusalem.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ASAPH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, <span>tlb<\/span>) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he ministered daily before the ark (1 Chr 16:37; 25:6, 9; 1 Esd 1:15; 5:27, 59). He was also described as David’s private prophet (1 Chr 25:1-2). Asaph’s name appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 50 and 73–83 and in the guild he established, “the sons of Asaph” (1 Chr 25:1; 2 Chr 35:15; Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Joah’s father. Joah was the recorder (court historian or royal scribe) in King Hezekiah’s administration (2 Kgs 18:18, 27; Is 36:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Temple guard or gatekeeper, seemingly the same person as Ebiasaph (1 Chr 9:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Keeper of the king’s forest in Palestine under Artaxerxes I Longimanus (Neh 2:8). Nehemiah asked this Asaph for timber to rebuild the wall, gates, and structures of Jerusalem.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ASAPH 1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, tlb) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he minister...","summary_en":"ASAPH 1. Berechiah’s son, an important tabernacle musician during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:31-32, 39). Along with Heman, the head singer, and Ethan, Asaph was appointed to sound bronze cymbals during the ceremony when the ark was brought to the new tabernacle (1 Chr 15:1-19). David appointed Asaph to serve “by giving constant praise and thanks to the Lord God of Israel” (1 Chr 16:4-5, tlb) and to lead Israel in a special psalm of praise (1 Chr 16:7-36). Along with his relatives he minister...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26557,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63057,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90683,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118309,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145935,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"45":[{"id":1019,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Akkub","title_en":"Akkub","content_ro":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","summary_en":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3140,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ater","title_en":"Ater","content_ro":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ATER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/li>\n<li>3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","summary_en":"ATER 1. Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:16; Neh 7:21). 2. Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who also returned to Judah with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). 3. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:17).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15470,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hatita","title_en":"Hatita","content_ro":"<h3>HATITA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATITA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATITA Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","summary_en":"HATITA Ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34589,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shallum","title_en":"Shallum","content_ro":"<h3>SHALLUM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 <span>BC<\/span>). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). <em>See<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who was keeper of the wardrobe and the husband of Huldah the prophetess, living in Jerusalem during the days of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22:14).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Sismai’s son and the father of Jekamiah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:40-41).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Alternate name for Jehoahaz, the youngest of King Josiah’s four sons and later Judah’s 17th king, in 1 Chronicles 3:15 and Jeremiah 22:11. <em>See<\/em> Jehoahaz #2.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Shaul’s son, Simeon’s grandson, and the father of Mibsam (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Alternate name for Meshullam, Zadok’s son and Ezra’s forefather, in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13 and Ezra 7:2. <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #7.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Alternate name for Shillem, the youngest of Naphtali’s four sons, in 1 Chronicles 7:13. <em>See<\/em> Shillem, Shillemite.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Alternate name for Meshullam, Kore’s son and chief of the gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17-19, 31; Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #20.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Ephraimite and the father of Jehizkiah (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levitical gatekeepers who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the descendants of Binnui who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Hallohesh’s son and a ruler of Jerusalem who, along with his daughters, repaired the section of city wall next to the Tower of the Ovens (Neh 3:12).<\/li>\n<li>13. Col-hozeh’s son and ruler of the Mizpah district, who rebuilt the Fountain Gate and the wall of the pool of Shelah of the king’s garden (Neh 3:15).<\/li>\n<li>14. Uncle of Hanamel and Jeremiah, who sold to the latter his field at Anathoth during King Zedekiah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 32:7). He is perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>15. Maaseiah’s father. Maaseiah, keeper of the threshold, owned a chamber in the sanctuary during Jehoiakim’s reign (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 35:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. 52:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHALLUM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 <span>BC<\/span>). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). <em>See<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who was keeper of the wardrobe and the husband of Huldah the prophetess, living in Jerusalem during the days of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 22:14).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Sismai’s son and the father of Jekamiah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:40-41).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Alternate name for Jehoahaz, the youngest of King Josiah’s four sons and later Judah’s 17th king, in 1 Chronicles 3:15 and Jeremiah 22:11. <em>See<\/em> Jehoahaz #2.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Shaul’s son, Simeon’s grandson, and the father of Mibsam (1 Chr 4:25).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Alternate name for Meshullam, Zadok’s son and Ezra’s forefather, in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13 and Ezra 7:2. <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #7.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Alternate name for Shillem, the youngest of Naphtali’s four sons, in 1 Chronicles 7:13. <em>See<\/em> Shillem, Shillemite.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Alternate name for Meshullam, Kore’s son and chief of the gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17-19, 31; Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). <em>See<\/em> Meshullam #20.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Ephraimite and the father of Jehizkiah (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levitical gatekeepers who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:24).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the descendants of Binnui who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Hallohesh’s son and a ruler of Jerusalem who, along with his daughters, repaired the section of city wall next to the Tower of the Ovens (Neh 3:12).<\/li>\n<li>13. Col-hozeh’s son and ruler of the Mizpah district, who rebuilt the Fountain Gate and the wall of the pool of Shelah of the king’s garden (Neh 3:15).<\/li>\n<li>14. Uncle of Hanamel and Jeremiah, who sold to the latter his field at Anathoth during King Zedekiah’s reign (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 32:7). He is perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>15. Maaseiah’s father. Maaseiah, keeper of the threshold, owned a chamber in the sanctuary during Jehoiakim’s reign (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>; Jer 35:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. 52:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHALLUM 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 BC). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 BC). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). See Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of. 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who ...","summary_en":"SHALLUM 1. Son of Jabesh and Israel’s 16th king (752 BC). In a conspiracy against King Zechariah, Shallum murdered the monarch at Ibleam and declared himself ruler of Israel during the 39th year of King Uzziah’s (Azariah’s) reign in Judah (792–740 BC). However, in like manner, he was killed at the hands of Gadi after ruling for only one month (2 Kgs 15:10-15). See Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of. 2. Son of Tikvah (alternately spelled Tokhath, see 2 Chr 34:22), who ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35188,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shobai","title_en":"Shobai","content_ro":"<h3>SHOBAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHOBAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHOBAI Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","summary_en":"SHOBAI Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36727,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Talmon","title_en":"Talmon","content_ro":"<h3>TALMON<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TALMON<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TALMON Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).","summary_en":"TALMON Head of a Levite family who served as temple gatekeepers (1 Chr 9:17). His descendants returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and served as gatekeepers in the rebuilt temple (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45; 11:19; 12:25).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"46":[{"id":13928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gishpa, Gispa*","title_en":"Gishpa, Gispa*","content_ro":"<h3>GISHPA, GISPA*<\/h3>\n<p>Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GISHPA, GISPA*<\/h3>\n<p>Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GISHPA, GISPA* Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, kjv “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","summary_en":"GISHPA, GISPA* Overseer of the temple servants in Nehemiah’s time (Neh 11:21, kjv “Gispa”); perhaps alternately called Hasupha in Ezra 2:43 and Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15446,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hashupha*","title_en":"Hashupha*","content_ro":"<h3>HASHUPHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling of Hasupha in Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASHUPHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling of Hasupha in Nehemiah 7:46. <em>See<\/em> Hasupha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASHUPHA* KJV alternate spelling of Hasupha in Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","summary_en":"HASHUPHA* KJV alternate spelling of Hasupha in Nehemiah 7:46. See Hasupha.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15463,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hasupha","title_en":"Hasupha","content_ro":"<h3>HASUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. <em>See<\/em> Gishpa, Gispa.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. <em>See<\/em> Gishpa, Gispa.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASUPHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. See Gishpa, Gispa.","summary_en":"HASUPHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). He is perhaps the same person as Gishpa in Nehemiah 11:21. See Gishpa, Gispa.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27373,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nethinim*","title_en":"Nethinim*","content_ro":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","summary_en":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36581,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tabbaoth","title_en":"Tabbaoth","content_ro":"<h3>TABBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABBAOTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABBAOTH Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).","summary_en":"TABBAOTH Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39322,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ziha","title_en":"Ziha","content_ro":"<h3>ZIHA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/li>\n<li>2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZIHA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46).<\/li>\n<li>2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZIHA 1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). 2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.","summary_en":"ZIHA 1. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:43; Neh 7:46). 2. Overseer of the temple servants living at Ophel during the postexilic era (Neh 11:21). If Ziha is simply a family name, then this person is likely the same as #1 above.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"47":[{"id":21640,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Keros","title_en":"Keros","content_ro":"<h3>KEROS<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KEROS<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KEROS One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","summary_en":"KEROS One of the temple servants whose descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28700,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Padon","title_en":"Padon","content_ro":"<h3>PADON<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PADON<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PADON Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","summary_en":"PADON Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:44; Neh 7:47).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35259,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sia*, Siaha","title_en":"Sia*, Siaha","content_ro":"<h3>SIA*, SIAHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, <span>nlt<\/span> mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SIA*, SIAHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, <span>nlt<\/span> mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SIA*, SIAHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, nlt mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.","summary_en":"SIA*, SIAHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Neh 7:47, nlt mg); spelled Siaha in Ezra 2:44.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"48":[{"id":14993,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hagaba*, Hagabah","title_en":"Hagaba*, Hagabah","content_ro":"<h3>HAGABA*, HAGABAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGABA*, HAGABAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGABA*, HAGABAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).","summary_en":"HAGABA*, HAGABAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:48; spelled “Hagabah” in Ezr 2:45).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22896,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lebana*, Lebanah","title_en":"Lebana*, Lebanah","content_ro":"<h3>LEBANA*, LEBANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LEBANA*, LEBANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LEBANA*, LEBANAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).","summary_en":"LEBANA*, LEBANAH Head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:45; Neh 7:48).","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34600,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shalmai","title_en":"Shalmai","content_ro":"<h3>SHALMAI<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. <em>See<\/em> Shamlai.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHALMAI<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. <em>See<\/em> Shamlai.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHALMAI Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. See Shamlai.","summary_en":"SHALMAI Alternate rendering of Shamlai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48. See Shamlai.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34617,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shamlai*","title_en":"Shamlai*","content_ro":"<h3>SHAMLAI*<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAMLAI*<\/h3>\n<p>Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAMLAI* Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.","summary_en":"SHAMLAI* Father of a family of temple servants returning to the land of Canaan with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity; alternately spelled Shalmai in Ezra 2:46 and Nehemiah 7:48.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"49":[{"id":13071,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gahar","title_en":"Gahar","content_ro":"<h3>GAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAHAR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAHAR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).","summary_en":"GAHAR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants that returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13799,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giddel","title_en":"Giddel","content_ro":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15196,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanan","title_en":"Hanan","content_ro":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","summary_en":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"50":[{"id":27301,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nekoda","title_en":"Nekoda","content_ro":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","summary_ro":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","summary_en":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reaiah","title_en":"Reaiah","content_ro":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","summary_en":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33051,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rezin","title_en":"Rezin","content_ro":"<h3>REZIN<\/h3>\n<p>1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their independence from Israel’s domination. During this period, Assyria was strengthening itself and expanding its empire throughout the Near East. Along with King Menahem of Israel, Rezin was forced to pay tribute to the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. The heavy burden of vassalage to the Assyrians generated anti-Assyrian sentiment among the Syrian and neighboring people. During this time, Rezin seems to have helped Pekah in his successful coup to seize the throne of Israel. Immediately upon his accession to the throne, Pekah formed an anti-Assyrian coalition with Rezin. They soon realized that successful resistance against Assyria required a larger alliance. They invited King Ahaz of Judah to join their coalition, but Ahaz adamantly refused. With the intention of placing an Aramean of Davidic lineage upon the throne of Judah in order to effect a broader Syrian-Israelite alliance, Rezin and Pekah joined in an attack on Judah. In spite of winning most battles, Rezin and Pekah were unsuccessful in their attempt to take Jerusalem and replace Ahaz (2 Chr 28:5-15; Is 7:1-9). During these dark days for Judah, Isaiah brought an encouraging word to the people. He prophesied the imminent destruction of Israel (Ephraim) and Damascus by Assyria (Is 7:1-9; 8:1-8). So certain was the destruction of these kingdoms that he referred to their two kings as “stubs of smoldering firebrands” about to be extinguished (7:4). Disregarding Isaiah’s prophecy, Ahaz sent a large sum of money to Tiglath-pileser III, hoping to induce him to come to Judah’s aid.<\/p>\n<p>Rezin and Pekah moved their forces to the north to prepare for the impending Assyrian invasion. Tiglath-pileser attacked in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and captured much of the area of Galilee. He then turned his attention to Damascus, to which Rezin had fled. Assyrian records refer to Rezin as a “caged bird” in besieged Damascus. When Damascus fell in 732 <span>BC<\/span>, Rezin was executed and many citizens of Damascus were exiled. Samaria, the capital city of Israel, fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Damascus and the nation of Syria became an Assyrian province. Rezin thus was the last Syrian king to reign in Damascus.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of some of the temple servants who served in postexilic times (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REZIN<\/h3>\n<p>1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their independence from Israel’s domination. During this period, Assyria was strengthening itself and expanding its empire throughout the Near East. Along with King Menahem of Israel, Rezin was forced to pay tribute to the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III in 738 <span>BC<\/span>. The heavy burden of vassalage to the Assyrians generated anti-Assyrian sentiment among the Syrian and neighboring people. During this time, Rezin seems to have helped Pekah in his successful coup to seize the throne of Israel. Immediately upon his accession to the throne, Pekah formed an anti-Assyrian coalition with Rezin. They soon realized that successful resistance against Assyria required a larger alliance. They invited King Ahaz of Judah to join their coalition, but Ahaz adamantly refused. With the intention of placing an Aramean of Davidic lineage upon the throne of Judah in order to effect a broader Syrian-Israelite alliance, Rezin and Pekah joined in an attack on Judah. In spite of winning most battles, Rezin and Pekah were unsuccessful in their attempt to take Jerusalem and replace Ahaz (2 Chr 28:5-15; Is 7:1-9). During these dark days for Judah, Isaiah brought an encouraging word to the people. He prophesied the imminent destruction of Israel (Ephraim) and Damascus by Assyria (Is 7:1-9; 8:1-8). So certain was the destruction of these kingdoms that he referred to their two kings as “stubs of smoldering firebrands” about to be extinguished (7:4). Disregarding Isaiah’s prophecy, Ahaz sent a large sum of money to Tiglath-pileser III, hoping to induce him to come to Judah’s aid.<\/p>\n<p>Rezin and Pekah moved their forces to the north to prepare for the impending Assyrian invasion. Tiglath-pileser attacked in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and captured much of the area of Galilee. He then turned his attention to Damascus, to which Rezin had fled. Assyrian records refer to Rezin as a “caged bird” in besieged Damascus. When Damascus fell in 732 <span>BC<\/span>, Rezin was executed and many citizens of Damascus were exiled. Samaria, the capital city of Israel, fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Damascus and the nation of Syria became an Assyrian province. Rezin thus was the last Syrian king to reign in Damascus.<\/p>\n<li>2. Father of some of the temple servants who served in postexilic times (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REZIN 1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6). Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their indepen...","summary_en":"REZIN 1. Syrian monarch who ruled in Damascus during the earlier part of Isaiah’s prophetic ministry and during the last years that the northern 10 tribes existed as a nation. Rezin was used by God to humble both Israel and Judah because they had forsaken him and rejected his covenant (2 Chr 28:5-6). Rezin was born in the town of Bit-hadara near Damascus in the land of Syria (also called Aram). Upon his accession to the throne, the Syrian people (also called Arameans) reasserted their indepen...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"51":[{"id":13292,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gazzam","title_en":"Gazzam","content_ro":"<h3>GAZZAM<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZZAM<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZZAM Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).","summary_en":"GAZZAM Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:51).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28922,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Paseah","title_en":"Paseah","content_ro":"<h3>PASEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PASEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PASEAH 1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12). 2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51). 3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).","summary_en":"PASEAH 1. Eshton’s son, the brother of Beth-rapha and a descendant of Kelub from Judah’s tribe. Paseah was mentioned as one of the men of Recah (1 Chr 4:12). 2. Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51). 3. Joiada’s father. Joiada, along with Meshullam, repaired the Old Gate of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s direction during the postexilic period (Neh 3:6).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Phaseah*","title_en":"Phaseah*","content_ro":"<h3>PHASEAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Paseah, the head of a family of temple servants, in Nehemiah 7:51. <em>See<\/em> Paseah #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PHASEAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Paseah, the head of a family of temple servants, in Nehemiah 7:51. <em>See<\/em> Paseah #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PHASEAH* KJV spelling of Paseah, the head of a family of temple servants, in Nehemiah 7:51. See Paseah #2.","summary_en":"PHASEAH* KJV spelling of Paseah, the head of a family of temple servants, in Nehemiah 7:51. See Paseah #2.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37934,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uzza","title_en":"Uzza","content_ro":"<h3>UZZA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>UZZA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. <em>See<\/em> Uzzah #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:51).<\/li>","summary_ro":"UZZA 1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence. 2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. See Uzzah #2. 3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts. 4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. See Uzzah #1. 5. Fore...","summary_en":"UZZA 1. Owner or initial planter of a garden that served as the burial place for kings Manasseh and Amon of Judah (2 Kgs 21:18, 26). The “garden of Uzza” was apparently adjacent to Manasseh’s royal residence. 2. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Shimei’s son, in 1 Chronicles 6:29. See Uzzah #2. 3. Son or descendant of Ehud from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:7), listed as an ancestor of Mordecai in extrabiblical texts. 4. KJV spelling for Uzzah, Abinadab’s son, in 1 Chronicles 13:7-11. See Uzzah #1. 5. Fore...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"52":[{"id":4386,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Besai","title_en":"Besai","content_ro":"<h3>BESAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BESAI<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BESAI Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).","summary_en":"BESAI Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:49; Neh 7:52).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25507,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Meunites Meunim","title_en":"Meunites Meunim","content_ro":"<h3>MEUNIM, MEUNITES<\/h3>\n<p>People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meunites,” suggesting Maon (Ma’in, Maan) in the Edomite area south of the Dead Sea as their home.<\/p>\n<p>The Meunim are listed among the families of temple servants returning to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52). However, because ancient enemies seem unlikely temple servants, some suggest that these Meunim were descendants of the Caleb clan within Judah to whom another town named Maon, west of the Dead Sea and south of Hebron, was allotted (Jos 15:20, 55). This Maon gave David refuge and another wife (1 Sm 23:24-28; 25).<\/p>\n<p>This reconstruction involving two groups, two Maons, and temple servants with very foreign names, is tentative. An alternate view holds that hostile foreigners, formerly captured to become temple slaves (cf. Jos 9:7; Ez 44:6-8), attained freedom during the exile and temple-guild status on returning.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maon (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEUNIM, MEUNITES<\/h3>\n<p>People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meunites,” suggesting Maon (Ma’in, Maan) in the Edomite area south of the Dead Sea as their home.<\/p>\n<p>The Meunim are listed among the families of temple servants returning to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52). However, because ancient enemies seem unlikely temple servants, some suggest that these Meunim were descendants of the Caleb clan within Judah to whom another town named Maon, west of the Dead Sea and south of Hebron, was allotted (Jos 15:20, 55). This Maon gave David refuge and another wife (1 Sm 23:24-28; 25).<\/p>\n<p>This reconstruction involving two groups, two Maons, and temple servants with very foreign names, is tentative. An alternate view holds that hostile foreigners, formerly captured to become temple slaves (cf. Jos 9:7; Ez 44:6-8), attained freedom during the exile and temple-guild status on returning.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Maon (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEUNIM, MEUNITES People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meuni...","summary_en":"MEUNIM, MEUNITES People living in Edom (Mt Seir, 1 Chr 4:41-42) who were dispossessed of their rich pasturelands by the Simeonites. Later, Meunites from Edom attacked Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 20:1); later still, King Uzziah of Judah defeated them (26:7). Their original land possession, association with Arabs and Ammonites, and prolonged hostility recall Judges 10:11-12, where “Maonites” are named oppressors of Israel. This word, by Hebrew rules of vocalization, could well become “Meuni...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27322,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nephishesim*, Nephisim*","title_en":"Nephishesim*, Nephisim*","content_ro":"<h3>NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM*<\/h3>\n<p>A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM*<\/h3>\n<p>A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM* A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).","summary_en":"NEPHISHESIM*, NEPHISIM* A group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile, counted among the temple servants (Ezr 2:50; Neh 7:52).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27327,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nephushesim*, Nephusim, Nephussim*","title_en":"Nephushesim*, Nephusim, Nephussim*","content_ro":"<h3>NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. <em>See<\/em> Nephishesim, Nephisim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. <em>See<\/em> Nephishesim, Nephisim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM* Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. See Nephishesim, Nephisim.","summary_en":"NEPHUSHESIM*, NEPHUSIM, NEPHUSSIM* Alternate spellings of Nephisim in Ezra 2:50, Nehemiah 7:52. See Nephishesim, Nephisim.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"53":[{"id":3123,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Asur","title_en":"Asur","content_ro":"<h3>ASUR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASUR<\/h3>\n<p>One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASUR One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.","summary_en":"ASUR One of the temple servants whose descendants were among those who returned with Zerubbabel from the exile (1 Esd 5:31). The name Harhur appears in the parallel lists of Ezra 2:51 and Nehemiah 7:53.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3493,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bakbuk","title_en":"Bakbuk","content_ro":"<h3>BAKBUK<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAKBUK<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAKBUK Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"BAKBUK Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15079,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hakupha","title_en":"Hakupha","content_ro":"<h3>HAKUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAKUPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAKUPHA Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"HAKUPHA Forefather of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harhur","title_en":"Harhur","content_ro":"<h3>HARHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARHUR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","summary_en":"HARHUR Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:51; Neh 7:53).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"54":[{"id":3989,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bazlith*, Bazluth","title_en":"Bazlith*, Bazluth","content_ro":"<h3>BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"BAZLITH*, BAZLUTH Ancestor of a group of temple assistants returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52, “Bazluth”; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15400,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harsha","title_en":"Harsha","content_ro":"<h3>HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARSHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"HARSHA Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25004,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mehida","title_en":"Mehida","content_ro":"<h3>MEHIDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEHIDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEHIDA Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","summary_en":"MEHIDA Head of a family of temple servants in Ezra’s time (Ezr 2:52; Neh 7:54).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"55":[{"id":3820,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barkos","title_en":"Barkos","content_ro":"<h3>BARKOS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARKOS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARKOS Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","summary_en":"BARKOS Ancestor of a group of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35590,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sisera","title_en":"Sisera","content_ro":"<h3>SISERA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were remembered in the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:19-30) and Psalm 83:9.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SISERA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were remembered in the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:19-30) and Psalm 83:9.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judges, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SISERA 1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were rememb...","summary_en":"SISERA 1. Commander of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera resided in Harosheth-haggoyim, from where he attacked northern Israel for 20 years. His army, strengthened by 900 iron chariots, was routed at the swollen river of Kishon near Megiddo under the leadership of Barak and Deborah. Having fled the battlefield, Sisera was killed by the hand of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, in the hill country overlooking the Jordan Valley (Jgs 4; 1 Sm 12:9). The events of this battle were rememb...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36733,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tamah*","title_en":"Tamah*","content_ro":"<h3>TAMAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Temah in Nehemiah 7:55. <em>See<\/em> Temah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TAMAH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Temah in Nehemiah 7:55. <em>See<\/em> Temah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TAMAH* KJV spelling of Temah in Nehemiah 7:55. See Temah.","summary_en":"TAMAH* KJV spelling of Temah in Nehemiah 7:55. See Temah.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36916,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temah","title_en":"Temah","content_ro":"<h3>TEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","summary_en":"TEMAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:53; Neh 7:55).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"56":[{"id":15468,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hatipha","title_en":"Hatipha","content_ro":"<h3>HATIPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATIPHA<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATIPHA Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","summary_en":"HATIPHA Ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27518,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Neziah","title_en":"Neziah","content_ro":"<h3>NEZIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEZIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEZIAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","summary_en":"NEZIAH Forefather of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:54; Neh 7:56).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"57":[{"id":3835,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barodis*","title_en":"Barodis*","content_ro":"<h3>BARODIS*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARODIS*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARODIS* Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).","summary_en":"BARODIS* Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (1 Esd 5:34). The name Barodis does not appear in parallel lists of returnees (Ezr 2:55-57; Neh 7:57-59).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15461,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hassophereth*","title_en":"Hassophereth*","content_ro":"<h3>HASSOPHERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASSOPHERETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASSOPHERETH* Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, nlt mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.","summary_en":"HASSOPHERETH* Ancestor of a family of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:55, nlt mg). He is perhaps identifiable with Sophereth in Nehemiah 7:57.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29651,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perida*","title_en":"Perida*","content_ro":"<h3>PERIDA*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Peruda, the ancestor of a family of servants who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:57, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Peruda.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERIDA*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate rendering of Peruda, the ancestor of a family of servants who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:57, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Peruda.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERIDA* Alternate rendering of Peruda, the ancestor of a family of servants who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:57, nlt mg). See Peruda.","summary_en":"PERIDA* Alternate rendering of Peruda, the ancestor of a family of servants who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:57, nlt mg). See Peruda.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29809,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Peruda","title_en":"Peruda","content_ro":"<h3>PERUDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERUDA<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERUDA Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).","summary_en":"PERUDA Head of a family of Solomon’s servants (Ezr 2:55); alternately called Perida in Nehemiah 7:57. His descendants formed part of the remnant of Israel that returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Esd 5:33).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35925,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sophereth","title_en":"Sophereth","content_ro":"<h3>SOPHERETH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate form of Hassophereth, the name of a postexilic Levitical family, in Nehemiah 7:57. <em>See<\/em> Hassophereth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOPHERETH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate form of Hassophereth, the name of a postexilic Levitical family, in Nehemiah 7:57. <em>See<\/em> Hassophereth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOPHERETH Alternate form of Hassophereth, the name of a postexilic Levitical family, in Nehemiah 7:57. See Hassophereth.","summary_en":"SOPHERETH Alternate form of Hassophereth, the name of a postexilic Levitical family, in Nehemiah 7:57. See Hassophereth.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35950,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sotai","title_en":"Sotai","content_ro":"<h3>SOTAI<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SOTAI<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SOTAI Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).","summary_en":"SOTAI Head of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel following the exile (Ezr 2:55; Neh 7:57).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"58":[{"id":8690,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkon","title_en":"Darkon","content_ro":"<h3>DARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKON<\/h3>\n<p>Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKON Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"DARKON Ancestor of a group of people who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13801,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Giddel","title_en":"Giddel","content_ro":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIDDEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"GIDDEL 1. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:49). 2. Ancestor of a group of King Solomon’s servants who returned with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18154,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jaalah","title_en":"Jaalah","content_ro":"<h3>JAALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAALAH Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","summary_en":"JAALAH Servant of King Solomon and head of a family who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:56; Neh 7:58).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"59":[{"id":1288,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ami","title_en":"Ami","content_ro":"<h3>AMI<\/h3>\n<p>Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Amon (Person) #3.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMI<\/h3>\n<p>Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Amon (Person) #3.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMI Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. See Amon (Person) #3.","summary_en":"AMI Official in Solomon’s court whose descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:57). Also spelled Amon in Nehemiah 7:59. See Amon (Person) #3.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1388,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amon (Person)","title_en":"Amon (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>AMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>\n<li>2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/li>\n<li>3. Official of Solomon; his descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:59). The spelling Ami (Ezr 2:57) is a variant of this name.<\/li>\n<li>4. Egyptian god, probably a fertility deity (Jer 46:25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AMON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>\n<li>2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 <span>BC<\/span>). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament).<\/li>\n<li>3. Official of Solomon; his descendants returned to Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 7:59). The spelling Ami (Ezr 2:57) is a variant of this name.<\/li>\n<li>4. Egyptian god, probably a fertility deity (Jer 46:25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AMON (Person) 1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead. 2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 BC). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). See Israel, History of; Chronology of the...","summary_en":"AMON (Person) 1. Governor of the city of Samaria during the reign of Ahab in Israel (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 18:25). Amon imprisoned the prophet Micaiah while Ahab defied Micaiah’s warning against attacking Ramoth-gilead. 2. King Manasseh’s son, the 15th king of Judah (642–640 BC). Amon was 22 years old when he became king. He indulged in idolatry like his father and after a two-year reign was assassinated in a palace coup (2 Kgs 21:19-26; 2 Chr 33:20-25). See Israel, History of; Chronology of the...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15480,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hattil","title_en":"Hattil","content_ro":"<h3>HATTIL<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HATTIL<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HATTIL Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).","summary_en":"HATTIL Forefather of a family of King Soloman’s servants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30778,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Zebaim* Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth","title_en":"of Zebaim* Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth","content_ro":"<h3>Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim*<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The <span>kjv<\/span> renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim*<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The <span>kjv<\/span> renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim* Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The kjv renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.","summary_en":"Pochereth-Hazzebaim*, Pochereth of Zebaim* Head of a family of Solomon’s servants who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59). The kjv renders the name Pochereth of Zebaim, making the latter part a place-name.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34966,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shephatiah","title_en":"Shephatiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEPHATIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the seven sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the brother of Jehoram who became sole regent (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) after his father’s death (2 Chr 21:1-2).<\/li>\n<li>6. Forefather of 372 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:4; Neh 7:9). Later, 81 members of Shephatiah’s house accompanied Ezra back to Palestine during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>7. Founder of a household of Solomon’s servants that returned with Zerubbabel to Judah after the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:57; Neh 7:59).<\/li>\n<li>8. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>9. Son of Mattan and a prince of Judah during the reign of King Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>). Annoyed with Jeremiah’s prophecies of doom for Jerusalem, Shephatiah (with Gedaliah, Jucal, and Pashhur) tried to put him to death. With Zedekiah’s permission, they hoped to achieve their ends by imprisoning Jeremiah in a cistern (Jer 38:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","summary_en":"SHEPHATIAH 1. One of six sons born to David during his seven-year reign at Hebron. Shephatiah’s mother was Abital, one of David’s wives (2 Sm 3:4; 1 Chr 3:3). 2. Benjaminite and the father of Meshullam, a returnee to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:8). 3. Haruphite from Benjamin’s tribe and one of the men of military prowess who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:5). 4. Son of Maacah and chief official of the Simeonites during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:16). 5. One of ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38969,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zebaim*","title_en":"Zebaim*","content_ro":"<h3>ZEBAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEBAIM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. <em>See<\/em> Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEBAIM* KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. See Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.","summary_en":"ZEBAIM* KJV rendering of a place mentioned in Ezra 2:57 and Nehemiah 7:59. See Pochereth-Hazzebaim, Pochereth of Zebaim.","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"60":[{"id":48192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:60","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","summary_en":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:60","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","summary_en":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:60","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","summary_en":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131070,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:60","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:60","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:60<\/strong> The <em>descendants of Solomon’s servants<\/em> apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","summary_en":"7:60 The descendants of Solomon’s servants apparently assisted the Levites by carrying wood or sweeping the floor (cp. Ezra 2:55-58). They might have been Gibeonites (Josh 9:23-27; 1 Chr 9:35-44) or war captives (Num 31:30-47).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"61":[{"id":568,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adasa","title_en":"Adasa","content_ro":"<h3>ADASA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town mentioned only in the period of the Maccabean revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrian army under Nicanor in 161 <span>BC<\/span> at Adasa. The victory was celebrated annually on the 13th of Adar (1 Macc 7:40, 45, 49). The modern site is probably Khirbet ’Adassa, 7 miles (11 kilometers) from Beth-horon.<\/li>\n<li>2. Leader of a group of Babylonian exiles returning to Judah who were unable to prove their Jewish ancestry (1 Esd 5:36). The same name, spelled Addon, seems to refer to an otherwise unidentified place in the Babylonian Empire (Neh 7:61).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ADASA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town mentioned only in the period of the Maccabean revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrian army under Nicanor in 161 <span>BC<\/span> at Adasa. The victory was celebrated annually on the 13th of Adar (1 Macc 7:40, 45, 49). The modern site is probably Khirbet ’Adassa, 7 miles (11 kilometers) from Beth-horon.<\/li>\n<li>2. Leader of a group of Babylonian exiles returning to Judah who were unable to prove their Jewish ancestry (1 Esd 5:36). The same name, spelled Addon, seems to refer to an otherwise unidentified place in the Babylonian Empire (Neh 7:61).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ADASA 1. Town mentioned only in the period of the Maccabean revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrian army under Nicanor in 161 BC at Adasa. The victory was celebrated annually on the 13th of Adar (1 Macc 7:40, 45, 49). The modern site is probably Khirbet ’Adassa, 7 miles (11 kilometers) from Beth-horon. 2. Leader of a group of Babylonian exiles returning to Judah who were unable to prove their Jewish ancestry (1 Esd 5:36). The same name, spelled Addon, seems to refer to an otherwise uniden...","summary_en":"ADASA 1. Town mentioned only in the period of the Maccabean revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeated the Syrian army under Nicanor in 161 BC at Adasa. The victory was celebrated annually on the 13th of Adar (1 Macc 7:40, 45, 49). The modern site is probably Khirbet ’Adassa, 7 miles (11 kilometers) from Beth-horon. 2. Leader of a group of Babylonian exiles returning to Judah who were unable to prove their Jewish ancestry (1 Esd 5:36). The same name, spelled Addon, seems to refer to an otherwise uniden...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":570,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Addan","title_en":"Addan","content_ro":"<h3>ADDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADDAN<\/h3>\n<p>Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADDAN Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"ADDAN Persian city from which Israelite exiles returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 2:59), probably named after a Babylonian god called Addu. The exiles returning from this city were unable to give evidence of their Jewish descent, having lost their genealogical credentials. Also spelled Addon (Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":577,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Addon*","title_en":"Addon*","content_ro":"<h3>ADDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate form of Addan, a place in Babylonia, in Nehemiah 7:61. <em>See<\/em> Addan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate form of Addan, a place in Babylonia, in Nehemiah 7:61. <em>See<\/em> Addan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADDON* Alternate form of Addan, a place in Babylonia, in Nehemiah 7:61. See Addan.","summary_en":"ADDON* Alternate form of Addan, a place in Babylonia, in Nehemiah 7:61. See Addan.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17258,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Immer (Place)","title_en":"Immer (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMMER (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMMER (Place) Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"IMMER (Place) Place in Babylon. The Jews who returned from Immer had lost the record of their ancestry and could not prove their Jewish lineage (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21642,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kerub","title_en":"Kerub","content_ro":"<h3>KERUB<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KERUB<\/h3>\n<p>One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KERUB One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"KERUB One of five Babylonian cities from which Israelites who could not trace their ancestry returned after the exile (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36901,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tel-Harsha","title_en":"Tel-Harsha","content_ro":"<h3>TEL-HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEL-HARSHA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEL-HARSHA One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.","summary_en":"TEL-HARSHA One of the Babylonian villages from which some returning exiles could not establish their genealogy (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61). Its precise location is uncertain, though it is likely near the Persian Gulf in the lowland region of Babylonia.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36907,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tel-Melah","title_en":"Tel-Melah","content_ro":"<h3>TEL-MELAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEL-MELAH<\/h3>\n<p>One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEL-MELAH One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","summary_en":"TEL-MELAH One of the Babylonian towns situated in the vicinity of the Kebar River near the city of Nippur from which exiles, who were unable to establish their Israelite descent, returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:59; Neh 7:61).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:61","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","summary_en":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:61","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","summary_en":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:61","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","summary_en":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:61","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:61","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:61-62<\/strong> <em>they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel:<\/em> They had no genealogical records.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","summary_en":"7:61-62 they could not prove that they . . . were descendants of Israel: They had no genealogical records.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"62":[{"id":9221,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Delaiah","title_en":"Delaiah","content_ro":"<h3>DELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, <span>kjv<\/span> “Dalaiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scroll, which Baruch had just read (Jer 36:12, 25).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>DELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, <span>kjv<\/span> “Dalaiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scroll, which Baruch had just read (Jer 36:12, 25).<\/li>","summary_ro":"DELAIAH 1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, kjv “Dalaiah”). 2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18). 3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 4. Father of a fifth-century BC man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10). 5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 BC) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scr...","summary_en":"DELAIAH 1. Son of Elioenai who traced his line of descent through Zerubbabel to David (1 Chr 3:24, kjv “Dalaiah”). 2. Priest in the time of David (1 Chr 24:18). 3. Head of a postexilic family that returned with Zerubbabel to Judea. The group was unable to prove true Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 4. Father of a fifth-century BC man named Shemaiah. Shemaiah opposed Nehemiah (Neh 6:10). 5. Counselor in the reign of Jehoiakim (609–598 BC) who urged the king not to destroy Jeremiah’s scr...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27303,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nekoda","title_en":"Nekoda","content_ro":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>NEKODA<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>","summary_ro":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","summary_en":"NEKODA 1. Father of a family of temple servants who returned to Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 2:48; Neh 7:50). 2. Father of a family of returned exiles who could not prove their Israelite descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37478,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tobiah","title_en":"Tobiah","content_ro":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TOBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 <span>BC<\/span>. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls, were high-ranking officers in the Persian Empire. He was connected by marriage with the Jews in two ways. He married the daughter of Shecaniah, the son of Arah, and his son Jehohanan married the daughter of Meshullam son of Berekiah (6:18). These marriage relations to a prominent Jerusalem family gave him strong ties with the Jerusalem aristocracy (v 17).<\/li>\n<p>Nehemiah had to face the threat posed by Tobiah and his influential allies. Nehemiah was charged with the intent of leading the Jerusalem population in a revolt against King Artaxerxes (Neh 2:19). As the work of rebuilding the wall progressed, Tobiah joined in the conspiracy of besieging Jerusalem (4:8). Nehemiah ordered the Jews to defend themselves. They continued their labors of repairing the wall with the protection of armed guards, and when the enemy forces came closer, every worker held a weapon in addition to his trowel (vv 17-19). They were encouraged by the belief that “our God will fight for us” (v 20). Tobiah also joined in the plot to assassinate Nehemiah after the walls were rebuilt (6:2-4). Nehemiah was further tested by libelous reports of insurrection and by a Jerusalemite hired by the allies to tempt Nehemiah into entering the temple proper and thereby discredit his standing among the faithful (vv 5-13).<\/p>\n<p>After Nehemiah left Jerusalem in order to report to Artaxerxes, Tobiah succeeded in reestablishing himself with those who had remained faithful to him. The priest Eliashib was also related to Tobiah and gave in to Tobiah by preparing a large room previously used for offerings in the temple (Neh 13:4-5). Tobiah used these quarters when visiting Jerusalem. One of Nehemiah’s first actions, upon his return, was to evict Tobiah from the temple (vv 8-9) and then restore the room for its proper use.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","summary_en":"TOBIAH 1. Forefather of a family of people who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem following the exile. This family was not able to prove their Jewish descent (Ezr 2:60; Neh 7:62). 2. Ammonite who opposed Nehemiah when he arrived in Jerusalem about 445 BC. Tobiah was known as “the Ammonite official” (Neh 2:10, 19), a designation associated with a person of high office, such as a governor. He, together with Sanballat and Geshem, the other leading opponents of the reconstruction of the walls,...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"63":[{"id":745,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Agia","title_en":"Agia","content_ro":"<h3>AGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGIA<\/h3>\n<p>Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGIA Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).","summary_en":"AGIA Jaddus’s wife, mentioned in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 5:38-39) as a descendant of Barzillai the Gileadite (2 Sm 19:31-40). Her sons, who had assumed the priesthood, were excluded from serving as priests when the Jews returned from Babylon and demanded verification of priestly ancestry (Ezr 2:61-63; Neh 7:63-65).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3886,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barzillai","title_en":"Barzillai","content_ro":"<h3>BARZILLAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Adriel’s father. Adriel married Saul’s daughter Merab (2 Sm 21:8; cf. 1 Sm 18:19). Barzillai was thus the paternal grandfather of five of the seven men hanged in Gibeon in recompense for Saul’s guilt in trying to wipe out all Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married the daughter (or descendant) of #1 above and adopted the family name. His descendants returned to Jerusalem in 538 <span>BC<\/span> with Zerubbabel after the exile. They were refused priestly status because they had lost the genealogies establishing their heritage and priestly descent (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BARZILLAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Adriel’s father. Adriel married Saul’s daughter Merab (2 Sm 21:8; cf. 1 Sm 18:19). Barzillai was thus the paternal grandfather of five of the seven men hanged in Gibeon in recompense for Saul’s guilt in trying to wipe out all Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-9).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who married the daughter (or descendant) of #1 above and adopted the family name. His descendants returned to Jerusalem in 538 <span>BC<\/span> with Zerubbabel after the exile. They were refused priestly status because they had lost the genealogies establishing their heritage and priestly descent (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BARZILLAI 1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7). 2. Adriel’s father. Adriel marrie...","summary_en":"BARZILLAI 1. One of three men who offered hospitality to David and his supporters at Mahanaim during the dangerous time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). After Absalom was defeated, Barzillai, a Gileadite, came to the Jordan River as David prepared to cross it in a triumphant return to Jerusalem. The 80-year-old Barzillai declined King David’s invitation to be his permanent guest in Jerusalem but sent his son Chimham in his place (19:31-40; cf. 1 Kgs 2:7). 2. Adriel’s father. Adriel marrie...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14884,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Habaiah*","title_en":"Habaiah*","content_ro":"<h3>HABAIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of Hobaiah in Nehemiah 7:63. <em>See<\/em> Hobaiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HABAIAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of Hobaiah in Nehemiah 7:63. <em>See<\/em> Hobaiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HABAIAH* Alternate spelling of Hobaiah in Nehemiah 7:63. See Hobaiah.","summary_en":"HABAIAH* Alternate spelling of Hobaiah in Nehemiah 7:63. See Hobaiah.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15077,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hakkoz","title_en":"Hakkoz","content_ro":"<h3>HAKKOZ<\/h3>\n<p>Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; <span>kjv<\/span> “Koz”).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAKKOZ<\/h3>\n<p>Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; <span>kjv<\/span> “Koz”).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAKKOZ Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; kjv “Koz”).","summary_en":"HAKKOZ Name borne by a priestly family during the monarchy (1 Chr 24:10). In Ezra’s time, the family pedigree could not be documented properly; consequently, the privilege of priestly service was withdrawn (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63; kjv “Koz”).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16495,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hobaiah","title_en":"Hobaiah","content_ro":"<h3>HOBAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOBAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOBAIAH Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).","summary_en":"HOBAIAH Head of a priestly family who returned to Palestine with Zerubbabel after the exile. He was unable to prove his priestly genealogy and so was not allowed to do priestly service (Ezr 2:61; Neh 7:63).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22352,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Koz","title_en":"Koz","content_ro":"<h3>KOZ<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. <em>See<\/em> Hakkoz.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KOZ<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8).<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. <em>See<\/em> Hakkoz.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KOZ 1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8). 2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. See Hakkoz.","summary_en":"KOZ 1. Descendant of Judah and possibly an ancestor of the priestly house of Hakkoz (1 Chr 4:8). 2. KJV rendering of the priestly family of Hakkoz (Ezr 2:61; Neh 3:4, 21; 7:63); perhaps identifiable with #1 above. See Hakkoz.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"65":[{"id":10953,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephod (Garment)","title_en":"Ephod (Garment)","content_ro":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","summary_en":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14696,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Governor","title_en":"Governor","content_ro":"<h3>GOVERNOR<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT).<\/p>\n<p>A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the office; other times accession to office was based on noble lineage, wealth, and public attainment. A governor normally received authority from a king; therefore, he was a deputy in the territory he governed. Such was the case with Joseph (Gn 42:6), Gedaliah (Jer 40:5), Daniel (Dn 2:48), and Zerubbabel (Hg 1:1). One Hebrew term for “governor,” however, could mean “absolute ruler” (Jos 12:2) as well as a person who acted under authority.<\/p>\n<p>The term most frequently used in the OT is evidently from an Akkadian expression meaning “lord of a district.” Such governors normally relied on military power to maintain their rule (2 Kgs 18:24; Neh 2:7; Jer 51:23, 28). The satrap of the Persian and Greek periods was most probably a civil governor. The leader of a city-state was often known as “governor” in the preexilic period (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 34:8). The writer of Psalm 22:28 used that title to describe God as the ruler of his people. A temple official who imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah in the stocks (Jer 20:1) was described as a “governor” (<span>rsv<\/span> “officer”). One who governed an army probably commanded one or more military units. What appears to be a special title is rendered “governor” in Ezra 2:63 and Nehemiah 7:65.<\/p>\n<p>Translation problems from the Greek are also numerous. Different levels and functions in leadership were obviously intended by the various words used. This is most clearly indicated by the use of such terms as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ethnarch<\/span> (1 Macc 14:47, <span>rsv<\/span>; 2 Cor 11:32, <span>nasb<\/span>), one who governed as a deputy of a king, and by another word referring to Roman provincial officials. Such governors were mentioned in NT writings (cf. Mt 10:18; Lk 2:2; 3:1; Acts 23:24; 1 Pt 2:14) and were responsible for maintaining law and order in their assigned territory. In NT times Judea was under the control of the governor of Syria. Archaic uses of “governor” occasionally appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The “governor” mentioned in James 3:4 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is the ship’s pilot.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOVERNOR<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT).<\/p>\n<p>A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the office; other times accession to office was based on noble lineage, wealth, and public attainment. A governor normally received authority from a king; therefore, he was a deputy in the territory he governed. Such was the case with Joseph (Gn 42:6), Gedaliah (Jer 40:5), Daniel (Dn 2:48), and Zerubbabel (Hg 1:1). One Hebrew term for “governor,” however, could mean “absolute ruler” (Jos 12:2) as well as a person who acted under authority.<\/p>\n<p>The term most frequently used in the OT is evidently from an Akkadian expression meaning “lord of a district.” Such governors normally relied on military power to maintain their rule (2 Kgs 18:24; Neh 2:7; Jer 51:23, 28). The satrap of the Persian and Greek periods was most probably a civil governor. The leader of a city-state was often known as “governor” in the preexilic period (1 Kgs 22:26; 2 Chr 34:8). The writer of Psalm 22:28 used that title to describe God as the ruler of his people. A temple official who imprisoned the prophet Jeremiah in the stocks (Jer 20:1) was described as a “governor” (<span>rsv<\/span> “officer”). One who governed an army probably commanded one or more military units. What appears to be a special title is rendered “governor” in Ezra 2:63 and Nehemiah 7:65.<\/p>\n<p>Translation problems from the Greek are also numerous. Different levels and functions in leadership were obviously intended by the various words used. This is most clearly indicated by the use of such terms as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ethnarch<\/span> (1 Macc 14:47, <span>rsv<\/span>; 2 Cor 11:32, <span>nasb<\/span>), one who governed as a deputy of a king, and by another word referring to Roman provincial officials. Such governors were mentioned in NT writings (cf. Mt 10:18; Lk 2:2; 3:1; Acts 23:24; 1 Pt 2:14) and were responsible for maintaining law and order in their assigned territory. In NT times Judea was under the control of the governor of Syria. Archaic uses of “governor” occasionally appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>. The “governor” mentioned in James 3:4 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is the ship’s pilot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOVERNOR Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT). A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the offic...","summary_en":"GOVERNOR Biblical term translated from at least ten different Hebrew root words and five Greek roots. English versions do not render these words consistently; they use a variety of titles, such as “overseer,” “officer,” “leader,” “judge,” and “deputy,” to translate the same Hebrew word. The situation is similar in the Septuagint (Greek OT). A governor was someone of superior rank who exercised authority over persons, territory, or both. Sometimes rank and power were his by virtue of the offic...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37910,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Urim and Thummim","title_en":"Urim and Thummim","content_ro":"<h3>URIM AND THUMMIM<\/h3>\n<p>Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65), when they were used for reaccrediting returned priests. In 1 Samuel 14:41 (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> mg, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the Greek translation preserves what may have been lost from the Hebrew original, a mention of them in connection with Saul’s effort to determine guilt in his army. That they could give answers to true-false or yes-no questions is evident from this verse. Hence, the system was probably akin to casting lots.<\/p>\n<p>None of the major spiritual leaders (e.g., Abraham, Moses, David, or the prophets) ever used them for determining the will of God, and there is no mention of them in the NT. The Urim and Thummim belonged to the nation Israel in its developing years, not when there were prophets and surely not once the Holy Spirit was available to believers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lots, Casting of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>URIM AND THUMMIM<\/h3>\n<p>Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65), when they were used for reaccrediting returned priests. In 1 Samuel 14:41 (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> mg, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the Greek translation preserves what may have been lost from the Hebrew original, a mention of them in connection with Saul’s effort to determine guilt in his army. That they could give answers to true-false or yes-no questions is evident from this verse. Hence, the system was probably akin to casting lots.<\/p>\n<p>None of the major spiritual leaders (e.g., Abraham, Moses, David, or the prophets) ever used them for determining the will of God, and there is no mention of them in the NT. The Urim and Thummim belonged to the nation Israel in its developing years, not when there were prophets and surely not once the Holy Spirit was available to believers.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lots, Casting of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"URIM AND THUMMIM Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7...","summary_en":"URIM AND THUMMIM Two untranslated Hebrew words that might mean “lights and perfections.” They refer to some kind of stones or tokens that the ancient high priests of Israel used for discovering the will of God (Nm 27:21). They were probably like dice or coins that had to land upright or upside down. According to Exodus 28:30, they were kept on or in the breastpiece of the high priest. They are not mentioned from the time of Saul (1 Sm 28:6) until the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48194,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:65","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:65","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","summary_en":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:65","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:65","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","summary_en":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:65","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:65","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","summary_en":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131072,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:65","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:65","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:65<\/strong> <em>Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots:<\/em> See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","summary_en":"7:65 Urim and Thummim . . . sacred lots: See study notes on Exod 28:30; Lev 8:8.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"66":[{"id":48195,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:66","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:66","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","summary_en":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:66","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:66","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","summary_en":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:66","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:66","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","summary_en":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131073,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:66","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:66","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:66<\/strong> The total number <em>42,360<\/em> agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","summary_en":"7:66 The total number 42,360 agrees with Ezra 2:64, but the numbers for the families listed total only 31,089. The individual numbers for each family might not include young children, or the list might simply be incomplete.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"67":[{"id":26547,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"68":[{"id":1849,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"70":[{"id":9848,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dram*","title_en":"Dram*","content_ro":"<h3>DRAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. <em>See<\/em> Coins.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DRAM*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. <em>See<\/em> Coins.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DRAM* KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. See Coins.","summary_en":"DRAM* KJV for daric, a Persian gold coin, in 1 Chronicles 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, and Nehemiah 7:70-72. See Coins.","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48196,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:70","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:70","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","summary_en":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:70","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:70","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","summary_en":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:70","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:70","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","summary_en":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131074,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:70","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:70","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:70-72<\/strong> <em>Some of the family leaders gave gifts<\/em> as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","summary_en":"7:70-72 Some of the family leaders gave gifts as their forefathers had done when sacred buildings were built (Exod 25:2-7; 35:4-9; 2 Kgs 12:1-21). This money supplemented gifts by Israelites who stayed in Babylon (Ezra 1:6) and by the Persian kings (Ezra 6:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"71":[{"id":30988,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pound","title_en":"Pound","content_ro":"<h3>POUND<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>\n<li>2. Greek coin <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mina<\/span><em>)<\/em> equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Roman measure (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">litra<\/span>) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>POUND<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>\n<li>2. Greek coin <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mina<\/span><em>)<\/em> equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Roman measure (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">litra<\/span>) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. <em>See<\/em> Weights and Measures.<\/li>","summary_ro":"POUND 1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). See Weights and Measures. 2. Greek coin (mina) equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13). 3. Roman measure (Greek litra) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. See Weights and Measures.","summary_en":"POUND 1. KJV for “mina,” a weight equivalent of about one pound or half a kilogram (1 Kgs 10:17; Ezr 2:69; Neh 7:71-72). See Weights and Measures. 2. Greek coin (mina) equivalent to about three month’s wages (Lk 19:13). 3. Roman measure (Greek litra) equivalent to about three-quarters of a pound (12 ounces, or .3 kilogram); mentioned only in John 12:3 and 19:39. See Weights and Measures.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"72":[{"id":25875,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"73":[{"id":11072,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Book of Esdras","title_en":"First Book of Esdras","content_ro":"<h3>ESDRAS, First Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> reviser of the Septuagint. Others speculate that 1 Esdras goes back to a now-lost Hebrew text outside the Masoretic Hebrew Text tradition. Most scholars, however, think that 1 Esdras is probably an edited compilation taken from the Septuagint translation of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Esdras (or Ezra, the spelling most familiar to American Protestants) was a descendant of Aaron’s priestly line and one of those (like Nehemiah and Zerubbabel) who led parties of exiled Jews back to Judea from Babylon. His ministry of leadership, and preservation and promulgation of the law, probably can be dated to the latter part of Persian king Artaxerxes I Longimanus’s reign (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It is certain that 1 Esdras was written before <span>AD<\/span> 90 because first-century Jewish historian Josephus quoted from it. The best date for 1 Esdras is probably around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>There are four books about Ezra and the history of the postexilic restoration of the Jews in Judea. Two of those books, titled Ezra and Nehemiah in Protestant versions of the Bible, are accepted as canonical by Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants alike. The other two books, 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, were not included in the Hebrew canon of the OT by Jews or by Protestants, who followed Hebrew tradition in identifying the books of the OT. The two Esdras books were included in the Latin Vulgate Bible (a translation from the Hebrew by biblical scholar Jerome completed in <span>AD<\/span> 404), and when the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545–1663) defined the apocryphal books that would be recognized by Catholics as part of the OT Scriptures, 1 and 2 Esdras were included. In the Vulgate, 1 Esdras is called 3 Esdras; Ezra and Nehemiah there are named 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>First Esdras is a history of the Jews from the reign of King Josiah in Jerusalem (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>) through the postexilic ministry of Ezra, accentuating the career of Ezra and deletes all mention of Nehemiah. Originally written in idiomatic Greek, 1 Esdras retells the material found in 2 Chronicles 35:1–36:23, Ezra 1:1–10:44 (excluding 4:6 and placing 4:7-24 before 2:1), and Nehemiah 7:73–8:12. Esdras contains two sections of material, one minor (1:23-24) and the other major, not found in the canonical records. The major addition (3:1–4:63) is a story about three youths who are bodyguards or pages of Darius I of Persia (522–486 <span>BC<\/span>). They engage in a contest to determine whether wine, royal power, or women are the strongest. The third youth, Zerubbabel, argues for women but adds “truth” as part of his argument, and thereby wins the verbal contest. For his reward he requests permission to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, which Darius grants. The story concludes with the preparations for Zerubbabel’s temple-building expedition. Thus, 1 Esdras differs from canonical Ezra and Nehemiah by placing Zerubbabel’s return under Darius I rather than under Cyrus (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESDRAS, First Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> reviser of the Septuagint. Others speculate that 1 Esdras goes back to a now-lost Hebrew text outside the Masoretic Hebrew Text tradition. Most scholars, however, think that 1 Esdras is probably an edited compilation taken from the Septuagint translation of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Esdras (or Ezra, the spelling most familiar to American Protestants) was a descendant of Aaron’s priestly line and one of those (like Nehemiah and Zerubbabel) who led parties of exiled Jews back to Judea from Babylon. His ministry of leadership, and preservation and promulgation of the law, probably can be dated to the latter part of Persian king Artaxerxes I Longimanus’s reign (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It is certain that 1 Esdras was written before <span>AD<\/span> 90 because first-century Jewish historian Josephus quoted from it. The best date for 1 Esdras is probably around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>There are four books about Ezra and the history of the postexilic restoration of the Jews in Judea. Two of those books, titled Ezra and Nehemiah in Protestant versions of the Bible, are accepted as canonical by Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants alike. The other two books, 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, were not included in the Hebrew canon of the OT by Jews or by Protestants, who followed Hebrew tradition in identifying the books of the OT. The two Esdras books were included in the Latin Vulgate Bible (a translation from the Hebrew by biblical scholar Jerome completed in <span>AD<\/span> 404), and when the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545–1663) defined the apocryphal books that would be recognized by Catholics as part of the OT Scriptures, 1 and 2 Esdras were included. In the Vulgate, 1 Esdras is called 3 Esdras; Ezra and Nehemiah there are named 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, respectively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>First Esdras is a history of the Jews from the reign of King Josiah in Jerusalem (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>) through the postexilic ministry of Ezra, accentuating the career of Ezra and deletes all mention of Nehemiah. Originally written in idiomatic Greek, 1 Esdras retells the material found in 2 Chronicles 35:1–36:23, Ezra 1:1–10:44 (excluding 4:6 and placing 4:7-24 before 2:1), and Nehemiah 7:73–8:12. Esdras contains two sections of material, one minor (1:23-24) and the other major, not found in the canonical records. The major addition (3:1–4:63) is a story about three youths who are bodyguards or pages of Darius I of Persia (522–486 <span>BC<\/span>). They engage in a contest to determine whether wine, royal power, or women are the strongest. The third youth, Zerubbabel, argues for women but adds “truth” as part of his argument, and thereby wins the verbal contest. For his reward he requests permission to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, which Darius grants. The story concludes with the preparations for Zerubbabel’s temple-building expedition. Thus, 1 Esdras differs from canonical Ezra and Nehemiah by placing Zerubbabel’s return under Darius I rather than under Cyrus (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESDRAS, First Book of Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Preview • Author and Date • Background • Content Author and Date The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion...","summary_en":"ESDRAS, First Book of Book that is largely a compilation of material from 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Preview • Author and Date • Background • Content Author and Date The author or compiler of 1 Esdras is unknown, and scholars disagree about its origin. Three theories seem to summarize the critical debate. Some think that 1 Esdras might be the original Septuagint (ancient Greek Old Testament) version, and that canonical Ezra and Nehemiah reflect the translation and editing of Theodotion...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nethinim*","title_en":"Nethinim*","content_ro":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NETHINIM*<\/h3>\n<p>Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nethinim<\/span> derives from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nathan<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">dedomenoi<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some recent translators have followed Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The <span>nlt<\/span> reads “Temple assistants.”<\/p>\n<p>Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service. First Chronicles 9:2 lists them with the priests and Levites who took possession of their allotted cities. Their listed order—priests, Levites, and Nethinim—suggests their subordinate role to the Levites (see also Neh 7:73; 11:3, 20-21). They returned from exile as temple personnel (Ezr 2:43, 58; 7:7, 24; 8:17, 20; Neh 7:46, 60). They had their dwelling in Jerusalem (Ezr 7:7; Neh 3:31; 11:21) and joined in the repair of the walls (Neh 3:26).<\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Nethinim is not absolutely certain. Numbers 31:47 records that the Levites received captives who were assigned laborious and menial tasks. When the Gibeonites were accepted within Israel as servants, they too were appointed as water carriers and wood choppers for the entire community and the altar of the Lord (Jos 9:9-27). David augmented the number of tabernacle servants by assigning captives taken in war to these duties (Ezr 8:20). At the completion of the temple, the temple services called for more workers, and Solomon added to their number. This new group became known as “Solomon’s men.” Ezra records that from the Nethinim, 392 returned from exile to Jerusalem (2:58) and performed the work in the rebuilt temple that had been done by their ancestors before the exile. Considered full members of the restored covenant community, the Nethinim devoted themselves to God (Neh 10:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","summary_en":"NETHINIM* Term appearing only in the books written after Israel’s return from exile (1 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah). Nethinim derives from the verb nathan, “to give, set apart, dedicate,” and means “those given” or “those set apart or dedicated.” The Septuagint translates the word dedomenoi. Some recent translators have followed Josephus (Antiquities 11.5.1) by referring to them as “temple slaves.” The nlt reads “Temple assistants.” Before the exile, the Nethinim were active in temple service....","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48197,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","summary_en":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48198,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","summary_en":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75823,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","summary_en":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75824,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","summary_en":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103449,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","summary_en":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103450,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","summary_en":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131075,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73–10:39<\/strong> This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","summary_en":"7:73–10:39 This section, perhaps originally a part of Ezra’s personal memoirs, describes how Ezra’s teaching of God’s law brought renewal of the people’s commitment to serve God and follow his instructions. Spiritual revival accompanied the civic work of Ezra and Nehemiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131076,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 7:73","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 7:73","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:73<\/strong> <em>their own towns throughout Israel:<\/em> Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","summary_en":"7:73 their own towns throughout Israel: Each family settled in the land that had been inhabited by their ancestors before the Exile.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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