1
Când a venit luna a şaptea, copiii lui Israel erau în cetăţile lor. Atunci tot poporul s-a strâns ca un singur om pe locul deschis dinaintea porţii apelor. Au zis cărturarului Ezra să se ducă să ia cartea Legii lui Moise, dată de Domnul lui Israel.
2
Şi preotul Ezra a adus Legea înaintea adunării, alcătuită din bărbaţi şi femei şi din toţi cei ce erau în stare s-o înţeleagă. Era întâia zi a lunii a şaptea.
3
Ezra a citit în carte de dimineaţă până la amează, pe locul deschis dinaintea porţii apelor, în faţa bărbaţilor şi femeilor şi în faţa celor ce erau în stare s-o înţeleagă. Tot poporul a fost cu luare aminte la cetirea cărţii Legii.
4
Cărturarul Ezra stătea pe un scaun de lemn, ridicat cu prilejul acesta. Lângă el, la dreapta, stăteau Matitia, Şema, Anaia, Urie, Hilchia şi Maaseia, şi la stânga: Pedaia, Mişael, Malchia, Haşum, Haşbadana, Zaharia şi Meşulam.
5
Ezra a deschis cartea înaintea întregului popor, căci stătea mai sus de cât tot poporul. Şi când a deschis-o, tot poporul s-a sculat.
6
Ezra a binecuvântat pe Domnul, Dumnezeul cel mare, şi tot poporul a răspuns ridicând mânile: ,,Amin! Amin!`` Şi s-au plecat şi s-au închinat înaintea Domnului, cu faţa la pământ.
7
Iosua, Bani, Şerebia, Iamin, Acub, Şabetai, Hodia, Maaseia, Chelita, Azaria, Iozabad, Hanan, Pelaia, şi Leviţii, lămureau poporului Legea, şi fiecare stătea la locul lui.
8
Ei citeau desluşit în cartea Legii lui Dumnezeu, şi-i arătau înţelesul, ca să-i facă să înţeleagă ce citiseră.
9
Dregătorul Neemia, preotul şi cărturarul Ezra, şi Leviţii cari învăţau pe popor, au zis întregului popor: ,,Ziua aceasta este închinată Domnului, Dumnezeului vostru; să nu vă bociţi şi să nu plângeţi!`` Căci tot poporul plângea când a auzit cuvintele Legii.
10
Ei le-au zis: ,,Duceţi-vă de mâncaţi cărnuri grase şi beţi băuturi dulci, şi trimeteţi câte o parte şi celor ce n-au nimic pregătit, căci ziua aceasta este închinată Domnului nostru; nu vă mâhniţi, căci bucuria Domnului va fi tăria voastră.``
11
Leviţii potoleau pe tot poporul, zicând: ,,Tăceţi, căci ziua aceasta este sfântă; nu vă mâhniţi!``
12
Şi tot poporul s-a dus să mănânce şi să bea. Şi au trimes câte o parte şi altora, şi s-au veselit mult. Căci înţeleseseră cuvintele cari li se tâlcuiseră.
13
A doua zi, capii de familie din tot poporul, preoţii şi Leviţii, s-au strâns la cărturarul Ezra, ca să audă tâlcuirea cuvintelor Legii.
14
Şi au găsit scris în Lege că Domnul poruncise prin Moise, că fiii lui Israel trebuie să locuiască în corturi, în timpul sărbătorii lunii a şaptea.
15
Atunci au trimes să răspândească vestea aceasta în toate cetăţile lor şi la Ierusalim: ,,Duceţi-vă la munte şi aduceţi ramuri de măslin, ramuri de măslin sălbatic, ramuri de mirt, ramuri de finic, şi ramuri de copaci stufoşi, ca să faceţi corturi, cum este scris.``
16
Atunci poporul s-a dus şi a adus ramuri, şi au făcut corturi pe acoperişul caselor lor, în curţile lor, în curţile Casei lui Dumnezeu, pe locul deschis dinaintea porţii apelor şi pe locul deschis dela poarta lui Efraim.
17
Toată adunarea celor ce se întorseseră din robie a făcut corturi şi au locuit în aceste corturi. Din vremea lui Iosua, fiul lui Nun, până în ziua aceasta, nu mai făcuseră copiii lui Israel aşa ceva. Şi a fost foarte mare veselie.
18
Au citit în cartea Legii lui Dumnezeu în fiecare zi, din cea dintâi zi până la cea din urmă. Au prăznuit sărbătoarea şapte zile, şi a fost o adunare de sărbătoare în ziua a opta, cum este poruncit.
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He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. 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He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). 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He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. 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One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124667,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11402,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27231,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30932,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Period*, Postexilic","title_en":"Period*, Postexilic","content_ro":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POSTEXILIC PERIOD*<\/h3>\n<p>A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>• The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>• The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>• The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>• The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>• Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>• The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>• Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalPerspective\">The Biblical Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah. These cover a period of over a century, only a portion of which is dealt with in detail, as the following table shows:<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheCollapseoftheBabylonianEmpire\">The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire<\/p>\n<p>This occurred with dramatic suddenness, largely because of internal resistance to the policies of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555–539 <span>BC<\/span>). His neglect of the traditional Babylonian deity, Marduk, in favor of the moon god, Sin, was particularly resented. Nabonidus lived in Taima during the last decade of his reign, refusing to enter Babylon, where his son Belshazzar ruled as virtual king, as noted in Daniel 5. Babylon fell to the Persians in October 538 <span>BC<\/span> and the entire empire passed into their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePolicyofPersia\">The Policy of Persia<\/p>\n<p>This is well documented through contemporary inscriptions, notably the record of Cyrus, the first king of the Persian Empire (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), in the “Cyrus Cylinder.” A new phase in the relationship of conqueror to conquered peoples opened up, which contrasted with the policy of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires of crushing any opposition by massive force. Cyrus and his successors followed a conciliatory line, allowing exiled groups to return home, encouraging local faiths, posing as the champions of the territorial deities, and allowing local autonomy except where Persian interests were affected adversely. The cost of this operation, although considerable, must have been infinitesimal compared with that of keeping rebellious subjects under constant subjection.<\/p>\n<p>The new enlightened policy is reflected in the decree of Cyrus, dated 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 1:1) and preserved in two versions. The first (vv 1-4) is clearly the official proclamation, while the second (6:3-5) is a more prosaic memorandum dealing with building specifications, a record of Cyrus’s commitment stored in the official archives (vv 1-2). The critical tendency to question the narrative in Ezra 1, especially on the score of the favorable references to the God of Israel and the vast financial support promised, has been nullified by the archaeological evidence, which shows an identical policy elsewhere. The Cyrus Cylinder, for example, notes, “The gods who live within them [i.e., the cities] I returned to their places. . . . All of their inhabitants I collected and restored to their dwelling places.”<\/p>\n<p>In Judah itself there is no evidence for any warfare in this period, which suggests that the Persian takeover of the area was nonviolent. Judah was incorporated into the fifth Persian province, which included the entire area west of the Euphrates River (Ezr 7:21). It was no more than a minor subdistrict, governed through Samaria.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnfromExile\">The Return from Exile<\/p>\n<p>The continuance of a large Jewish community in Babylonia shows that not all the Jews responded to the invitation to return to their homeland, probably because of the prosperity acquired in exile. But 42,360 dedicated Jews (Ezr 2:64) braved the challenge of a four-month 900-mile (1,448-kilometer) journey under Sheshbazzar (1:8), the officially appointed leader, and Zerubbabel his nephew (3:2), who was probably the one to whom the Jews looked as leader. With great enthusiasm the Jews rebuilt the altar of sacrifice and resumed the observance of the traditional feasts (vv 1-6), revealing both a sense of stewardship (2:68-69) and careful attention to the requirements of the Law (3:2-4). Soon after, work on the second temple commenced—the materials and master craftsmen being imported from Tyre and Sidon (Ezr 3:7-9; cf. 1 Kgs 5). When the foundations were laid, the worshipers were doubtless aware that they were fulfilling God’s promise through Jeremiah (Ezr 3:10-11; cf. Jer 33:10-11). But their high hopes were thwarted when there was opposition from neighboring areas (Ezr 4:4-5), selfishness in giving their own accommodations a higher priority than the Lord’s house (Hg 1:2-4, 9), and a series of crop failures that further reduced morale (1:6, 10-11; 2:17).<\/p>\n<p>Work on the temple was not resumed until Haggai and Zechariah appeared in 520 <span>BC<\/span>. They encouraged Zerubbabel and Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, rebuked the people for their apathy and selfishness, and promised God’s presence and blessing upon the temple project (Hg 1:12–2:9). Zechariah’s preaching went beyond the building of the temple, including the rebuilding of Jerusalem itself (Zec 2:1-5) and its world reputation (2:1-5, 11-12; 8:22). The two leaders were addressed in ways that anticipated the Messiah (Hg 2:21-23; Zec 6:10-14). But the Persian king Darius (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) was not alarmed when the rebuilding operation was reported to him (Ezr 5:1–6:13) and allowed the work to continue. In February 515 <span>BC<\/span> it was dedicated (6:14-16). The Jewish community again had a focal point for its religion, but the political situation remained difficult, with no real security in a still-shattered city.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheReturnofEzra\">The Return of Ezra<\/p>\n<p>The traditional date of Ezra’s return is 458 <span>BC<\/span> (preceding that of Nehemiah in 445 <span>BC<\/span>). This is based on the premise that the King Artaxerxes noted in Ezra 7:7 was Artaxerxes I Longimanus (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and not Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). However, some scholars, allowing that the king was Artaxerxes I, but believing that Nehemiah preceded Ezra, suggest that a tens unit has dropped out of “seventh” in Ezra 7:7, and that the date of Ezra’s return should be the 27th (438 <span>BC<\/span>) or 37th year (428 <span>BC<\/span>) of Artaxerxes I, making Ezra’s return a few years after Nehemiah’s. While this is plausible, there remains strong support for the traditional view. It accords with the order of the two books in the OT and requires no textual emendation. It also accounts for the section in Ezra 4:7-23, where, in the reign of Artaxerxes, an abortive effort was made by a recently returned group to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. Nehemiah 1:1-4 suggests that this was regarded as important and its abrupt termination, by a decree of the king, caused Nehemiah great distress. The probability is that Ezra, recently returned, realized that little could be done in the way of major religious reformation until Jerusalem was secure, but in attempting to rebuild the wall he exceeded his mandate and was not able to function adequately until Nehemiah arrived, when the new security of Jerusalem allowed the great Law-reading ceremony of Nehemiah 8:1-12 to take place.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s ministry concerned the teaching of the Law of Moses, the Pentateuch, which had long been extant in its final form by this time. Ezra 7 shows that Artaxerxes was following the traditional Persian policy of encouraging good relationships with his subject peoples. Ezra’s appointment (Ezr 7:12) was to a state office; it has frequently been paraphrased as “Secretary of State for Jewish Religious Affairs.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NehemiahsReturnandMinistry\">Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry<\/p>\n<p>Hanani and others (Neh 1:1-3) informed Nehemiah of the complete failure of a recent attempt to rebuild the wall, probably that recorded in Ezra 4:7-23, and sought his mediation before the very king who had authorized the decree that compelled work on the wall to cease. A friend in high places was vital, and Nehemiah, a trusted and influential member of the court (Neh 1:11), was approached for this delicate and dangerous task. Nehemiah 1:4–2:8 shows how well he prepared for and seized his opportunity. His appointment as the governor of Judah (5:14) involved the removal of this area from the control of the governor of Samaria, which accounts for the unrelenting hostility of Sanballat (2:19; 4:1). The evidence of Nehemiah 3 suggests that the extent of Judah at this time was limited, probably not reaching as far north as Bethel or as far south as Hebron. Nehemiah was faced with opposition that included ridicule (2:19; 4:1-3), armed force (4:8, 11), discouragement (v 10), internal economic problems (5:1-18), intrigue (6:1-2), intimidation, and blackmail (vv 5-14). In spite of these obstacles, the wall was completed in the incredibly brief period of 52 days (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to this monumental achievement, Nehemiah completely reorganized the social and economic life of Jerusalem, dealing with alienated mortgages, excessive interest rates (Neh 5:1-13), mixed marriages (10:30; 13:23-30), Sabbath observance (10:31; 13:15-21), and temple supplies (10:32-40; 13:10-13). Almost certainly, it was this political and economic security that allowed Ezra, who probably arrived 13 years earlier, to proceed with his great religious reformation based on the Law. Nehemiah’s book, usually called the “Nehemiah Memoirs,” was probably presented by him in the temple as a “votive offering” (as indicated by the form of 5:19; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRemainderofthePersianPeriod\">The Remainder of the Persian Period<\/p>\n<p>Persian control, which probably centered on Lachish, was traditionally mild, except where her interests were directly threatened. There is no evidence of any major discontent in Judah, which enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy. The Phoenician revolt of 351 <span>BC<\/span>, which took Artaxerxes III (359–338 <span>BC<\/span>) three years to subdue, was the only serious disturbance in the area. While Artaxerxes deported some Jews to Hyrcania, southeast of the Caspian Sea, that was probably a precautionary measure, and Judah does not appear to have been greatly involved in the revolt. The Jerusalem priests were allowed to mint their own coinage and levy a temple tax. Under the wider influence of the Persian Empire, Hebrew gradually fell out of popular usage as a spoken language, being replaced by Aramaic. As the international stature of Greece increased, so the influence of Hellenism began to be felt, even in Judah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousFeaturesofthePostexilicPeriod\">Religious Features of the Postexilic Period<\/p>\n<h5>The Decline of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>There were three main reasons for this:<\/p>\n<p>1. The prophetic movement as a whole became discredited after Jerusalem fell in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The large number of popular cult prophets who had foretold a sudden end to the Babylonian oppression (e.g., Jer 28:1-4) were proved decisively wrong. The suspicion that henceforth became attached to prophecy was increased further in the Persian period, when large numbers of itinerant “prophets” of various religions traveled widely. Zechariah 13:2-6 shows the stern measures advocated against such false prophets and fortune-tellers.<\/p>\n<li>2. There was a markedly different historical situation. The chastened remnant that survived had turned away from the blatant apostasy that characterized the preexilic period, so that the prophetic condemnation was not required with the same urgency. The temple and the Law had acquired a new prominence, and postexilic prophecy generally was concerned either with the rebuilding of the temple (e.g., Haggai and Zechariah) or the purification of its cult (e.g., Malachi). Once this goal had been realized, the role of the prophet was diminished. Another historical factor was the relatively large number of priests who returned from captivity, doubtless encouraged by the prospect of serving in the rebuilt temple. The main need at this time was for the priest, who revealed God’s will on the basis of the Law.<\/li>\n<li>3. There was an increasing stress on the transcendence of God, caused partly by an emphasis upon priestly mediation and partly by a fear of God that resulted from the recent judgment. The apocalyptic movement, with its emphasis on angelic intermediaries between humans and a transcendent God, encouraged this tendency. Correspondingly, the prophetic appeal for a personal, moral walk with God weakened.<\/li>\n<h5>The Rise of the Synagogue<\/h5>\n<p>Some type of local worship, independent of the temple and its sacrifices, must have developed in the Captivity, with the Law increasingly occupying a dominant position. Later on, the prophetic books were read and expounded, but the primary stress was always on the Law. This mode of worship later took root in the homeland, and the synagogue gradually developed into the focal point of the community for social relationships, education, and worship. It facilitated the worldwide continuance and expansion of the Jewish faith, independent of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Ezra, Book of; Haggai, Book of; Israel, History of; Nehemiah, Book of; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","summary_en":"POSTEXILIC PERIOD* A period in the Jews’ history after their exile to Babylon. This period extends from 539–c. 331 BC. Preview • The Biblical Perspective • The Collapse of the Babylonian Empire • The Policy of Persia • The Return from Exile • The Return of Ezra • Nehemiah’s Return and Ministry • The Remainder of the Persian Period • Religious Features of the Postexilic Period The Biblical Perspective The books that specifically cover the history of the postexilic or Persian period are Ezra, N...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Synagogue","title_en":"Synagogue","content_ro":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYNAGOGUE<\/h3>\n<p>Transliteration of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sunagoge<\/span> is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginsandEarlyHistory\">Origins and Early History<\/p>\n<p>It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation in Jerusalem after the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The people who remained in and around the city who wanted to keep true to their faith would have felt the need to meet for worship, where they would continue to teach the law and the message of the prophets. Some think, therefore, that synagogues may have had their origin in such a situation. Jewish people in the various places of the Dispersion would have been aware of a similar need. Jewish elders met together with Ezekiel in exile in Babylon (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1). Yet there is no positive evidence of actual synagogues at this early stage. In Nehemiah 8:1-8 the postexilic community gathered in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe brought the law, read it from a wooden pulpit, and gave an interpretation so that the people understood the reading. When Ezra blessed the Lord, the people bowed their heads and worshiped. These were the basic elements of what came to be synagogue worship. The first undisputed evidence of a synagogue comes from Egypt in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. From the first century <span>BC<\/span> onward, the evidence of synagogues is abundant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagoguesinNTTimes\">Synagogues in NT Times<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels give the impression of many synagogues existing throughout Palestine. Jesus frequently taught in synagogues (e.g., Mt 4:23; 9:35), especially during his Galilean ministry, but probably in Judea as well. In John 18:20 are the words of Jesus in his trial before the high priest: “I have spoken openly to the world; I have always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where all Jews come together” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of the Apostles refers to synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9), Damascus (9:2), Cyprus (13:5), the Roman province of Galatia (13:14; 14:1), Macedonia and Greece (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4), and Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia (19:8). Paul made it his practice to go directly to the synagogue and to preach there as long as he was given freedom to do so.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SynagogueWorship\">Synagogue Worship<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles give abundant evidence for the meeting of Jewish people on the Sabbath to worship in the synagogue. People also met for worship on the second and fifth days of the week. Luke provides us with the earliest description of a synagogue service. The Mishnah describes the pattern of the synagogue service: the confession of faith, the Shema (which included reciting Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; and Numbers 15:37-41); prayer (such as the 18 Benedictions); Scripture reading (the reading of the Law was basic, see Acts 15:21, and was read according to a three-year cycle; the Prophets were also read, but more at random); interpretation (as the knowledge of biblical Hebrew diminished in Palestine, an Aramaic translation of the Scriptures was presented after the reading in Hebrew, and in the Dispersion, a Greek translation); address (following the reading, anyone suitably qualified might address the people, as Jesus and the apostle Paul often did); and blessing.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudicialFunctions\">Judicial Functions<\/p>\n<p>Administration of justice was also part of the work of the synagogue. Offenders against the law and those whose actions were held to be contrary to Jewish religion were brought before the elders of the synagogue. They might, under extreme circumstances, excommunicate an offender (see Jn 9:22, 34-35; 12:42) or have him scourged. Jesus warned his disciples to be prepared to face either possibility (Mt 10:17; Jn 16:2). Saul, as persecutor of the Christians, had letters addressed to the synagogues at Damascus, giving authority to arrest Christians and bring them bound to Jerusalem (Acts 9:2). In Acts 22:19 he speaks of causing them to be both beaten and imprisoned. Paul himself received the 39 lashes that were administered in the synagogues (2 Cor 11:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TeachingoftheLaw\">Teaching of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The reading of the Law was of central significance in synagogue worship. The teaching of the Law to people generally, and especially to children, was intimately associated with the synagogue. Either the synagogue building or a school was used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Organization\">Organization<\/p>\n<p>The NT refers in particular (e.g., Mk 5:22; Lk 13:14; Acts 18:8,17) to two appointments in the synagogue: the “ruler of the synagogue,” who was responsible for order and for selection of the Scripture reader; and an attendant (Lk 4:20), who brought out and put away the Scripture scrolls and also administered corporal punishment to unruly students. Later on, there was a person appointed as leader of the prayers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/p>\n<p>In structure the synagogue was modeled after the temple. It was built, when possible, on high ground and often constructed so that the people could sit facing the direction of Jerusalem. There was a portable chest for the scrolls of the Law and the Prophets, and a platform for the reading of the Scriptures and for preaching. Men and women sat apart. The scribes loved the “chief seats” facing the people (Mk 12:39). Many synagogues had ornamentations of vine leaves, seven-branched candlesticks, the paschal lamb, and the pot of manna. Early synagogues also had a genizah, which was a cellar or attic where worn scrolls were put, because, as they bore the name of God, they were too sacred to be destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judaism; Ruler of the Synagogue.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","summary_en":"SYNAGOGUE Transliteration of the Greek word sunagoge, meaning “a gathering together.” It is used more than 50 times in the NT, mostly for the religious gathering places of Jewish communities in Palestine and throughout the Dispersion. The word sunagoge is usually the Greek rendering of Hebrew words in the OT that speak of the assembling or assembly of the people. Origins and Early History It is unknown just how or when the synagogue as an institution first began. One can imagine the situation...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38794,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Writer","title_en":"Writer","content_ro":"<h3>WRITER<\/h3>\n<p>Professional scribe and\/or secretary; religious scribe and\/or secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProfessionalScribesandSecretaries\">Professional Scribes and Secretaries<\/p>\n<p>Scribes were employed as secretaries in Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Greco-Roman Empire. Court scribes would sometimes rise to positions of social prestige and considerable political influence, much as a secretary of state today.<\/p>\n<p>There were schools for the training of such scribes. To master the difficult art of writing on clay probably required as much time then as it takes students now to develop the ability to read and write. Would-be scribes could either enter a regular school or work as an apprentice under a private teacher, though most of them apparently followed the latter procedure. Scribes who were willing to teach could be found everywhere, even in the smaller towns. In fact, most of the scribes had at least one apprentice, who was treated like a son while learning the profession. Such students learned not only from private tutoring but also from the example of their teacher. This kind of education was sufficient to equip young scribes for the normal commercial branches of the craft. They were fully prepared to handle the necessary formulas for the various kinds of legal and business documents, and they could easily take dictation for private correspondence.<\/p>\n<p>For additional study and training, however, it was necessary to attend the regular schools. The schools were attached to temples, and only these schools had the proper facilities to teach the sciences (including mathematics) and literature, which the more advanced scribes had to master. There a budding scribe could study to become even a priest or a “scientist.” In the ruins of ancient cities archaeologists have discovered “textbooks” used by the pupils. Excavators have also uncovered schoolrooms with benches on which the students sat. Some of the ancient Near Eastern texts that have been unearthed are nothing but schoolboy exercises or student copies of originals. These copies are usually not as beautiful or as legible as the originals, which were written by master scribes.<\/p>\n<p>When the teacher wanted to give the students an assignment, he had available in the temple school virtually every type of text imaginable. For elementary work he could have the students practice writing a list of cuneiform signs, much like our learning the letters of the alphabet—except that there were some 600 signs! Another simple assignment would have been to copy dictionaries containing lists of stones, cities, animals, and gods. After such preparatory work, the students could then move on to literary texts and, for example, accurately reproduce a portion of one of the great epics, a hymn, or a prayer. Through arduous study and a lengthy program of instruction and practice, a gifted student could become qualified for scribal service in almost any field.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousScribe\">Religious Scribe<\/p>\n<p>The scribe in Israel undertook a wide range of writing tasks. Often the scribe sat at the gate of the city or in an open area undertaking numerous kinds of writing tasks for illiterate citizens, correspondence, writing of receipts, and contracts. More officially, he kept records and wrote annals. Religious scribes copied the Scriptures. Several of these men are mentioned in the OT: Shebna (2 Kgs 18:18, 37), Shaphan (2 Kgs 22:8-12), Ezra (Ezr 7:6, 11; Neh 8:1, 9, 13; 12:26, 36), Baruch (Jer 36:26, 32), and Jonathan (Jer 37:15, 20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made use of secretaries or scribes (called amanuenses) when he composed his epistles. The usual procedure for a dictated epistle was for the amanuensis to take down the speaker’s words and produce a transcript, which the author would then review and edit. Taking the edited copy, the amanuensis would produce a final draft, which the author would sign in his own handwriting. Two NT epistles provide the name of an amanuensis: Tertius for Romans (Rom 16:22) and Silvanus for 1 Peter (1 Pt 5:12). Some of Paul’s epistles indicate that he provided the concluding salutation in his own handwriting: 1 Corinthians (1 Cor 16:21), Galatians (Gal 6:11), Colossians (Col 4:18), and 2 Thessalonians (2 Thes 3:17). This indicates that these epistles were penned by someone else—Paul’s amanuensis—prior to his signing off. By contrast, John penned his own epistles (1 Jn 1:4; 2:1, 7-8, 12-14; 2 Jn 1:12; 3 Jn 1:9, 13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Letter Writing, Ancient; Writing.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WRITER<\/h3>\n<p>Professional scribe and\/or secretary; religious scribe and\/or secretary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProfessionalScribesandSecretaries\">Professional Scribes and Secretaries<\/p>\n<p>Scribes were employed as secretaries in Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Greco-Roman Empire. Court scribes would sometimes rise to positions of social prestige and considerable political influence, much as a secretary of state today.<\/p>\n<p>There were schools for the training of such scribes. To master the difficult art of writing on clay probably required as much time then as it takes students now to develop the ability to read and write. Would-be scribes could either enter a regular school or work as an apprentice under a private teacher, though most of them apparently followed the latter procedure. Scribes who were willing to teach could be found everywhere, even in the smaller towns. In fact, most of the scribes had at least one apprentice, who was treated like a son while learning the profession. Such students learned not only from private tutoring but also from the example of their teacher. This kind of education was sufficient to equip young scribes for the normal commercial branches of the craft. They were fully prepared to handle the necessary formulas for the various kinds of legal and business documents, and they could easily take dictation for private correspondence.<\/p>\n<p>For additional study and training, however, it was necessary to attend the regular schools. The schools were attached to temples, and only these schools had the proper facilities to teach the sciences (including mathematics) and literature, which the more advanced scribes had to master. There a budding scribe could study to become even a priest or a “scientist.” In the ruins of ancient cities archaeologists have discovered “textbooks” used by the pupils. Excavators have also uncovered schoolrooms with benches on which the students sat. Some of the ancient Near Eastern texts that have been unearthed are nothing but schoolboy exercises or student copies of originals. These copies are usually not as beautiful or as legible as the originals, which were written by master scribes.<\/p>\n<p>When the teacher wanted to give the students an assignment, he had available in the temple school virtually every type of text imaginable. For elementary work he could have the students practice writing a list of cuneiform signs, much like our learning the letters of the alphabet—except that there were some 600 signs! Another simple assignment would have been to copy dictionaries containing lists of stones, cities, animals, and gods. After such preparatory work, the students could then move on to literary texts and, for example, accurately reproduce a portion of one of the great epics, a hymn, or a prayer. Through arduous study and a lengthy program of instruction and practice, a gifted student could become qualified for scribal service in almost any field.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ReligiousScribe\">Religious Scribe<\/p>\n<p>The scribe in Israel undertook a wide range of writing tasks. Often the scribe sat at the gate of the city or in an open area undertaking numerous kinds of writing tasks for illiterate citizens, correspondence, writing of receipts, and contracts. More officially, he kept records and wrote annals. Religious scribes copied the Scriptures. Several of these men are mentioned in the OT: Shebna (2 Kgs 18:18, 37), Shaphan (2 Kgs 22:8-12), Ezra (Ezr 7:6, 11; Neh 8:1, 9, 13; 12:26, 36), Baruch (Jer 36:26, 32), and Jonathan (Jer 37:15, 20).<\/p>\n<p>Paul made use of secretaries or scribes (called amanuenses) when he composed his epistles. The usual procedure for a dictated epistle was for the amanuensis to take down the speaker’s words and produce a transcript, which the author would then review and edit. Taking the edited copy, the amanuensis would produce a final draft, which the author would sign in his own handwriting. Two NT epistles provide the name of an amanuensis: Tertius for Romans (Rom 16:22) and Silvanus for 1 Peter (1 Pt 5:12). Some of Paul’s epistles indicate that he provided the concluding salutation in his own handwriting: 1 Corinthians (1 Cor 16:21), Galatians (Gal 6:11), Colossians (Col 4:18), and 2 Thessalonians (2 Thes 3:17). This indicates that these epistles were penned by someone else—Paul’s amanuensis—prior to his signing off. By contrast, John penned his own epistles (1 Jn 1:4; 2:1, 7-8, 12-14; 2 Jn 1:12; 3 Jn 1:9, 13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Letter Writing, Ancient; Writing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WRITER Professional scribe and\/or secretary; religious scribe and\/or secretary. Professional Scribes and Secretaries Scribes were employed as secretaries in Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Greco-Roman Empire. Court scribes would sometimes rise to positions of social prestige and considerable political influence, much as a secretary of state today. There were schools for the training of such scribes. To master the difficult art of writing on clay probably required as much time then as i...","summary_en":"WRITER Professional scribe and\/or secretary; religious scribe and\/or secretary. Professional Scribes and Secretaries Scribes were employed as secretaries in Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Greco-Roman Empire. Court scribes would sometimes rise to positions of social prestige and considerable political influence, much as a secretary of state today. There were schools for the training of such scribes. To master the difficult art of writing on clay probably required as much time then as i...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48199,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","summary_en":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75825,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","summary_en":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103451,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","summary_en":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131077,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:1<\/strong> The <em>Water Gate<\/em> was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","summary_en":"8:1 The Water Gate was located toward the middle of the eastern wall of Jerusalem, south of the Temple and east of the palace ruins (3:26; 12:37). There was plenty of open space so no one would be excluded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62261,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89887,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117513,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145139,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word","title_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word","content_ro":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Centrality of God’s Word<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; Pss 1:2; 119:15). Obedience was far more important than offering sacrifices (1 Sam 15:22).<\/p>\n<p>But when God’s people neglect his Word and take their eyes off his truth, we have a tendency to fall away from the life he envisions for us. In the time of Josiah, even the priests had lost and forgotten the Book of the Law. When it was discovered in the Temple (2 Kgs 22:8-13), the young king read it and tore his clothing, realizing how the nation had forsaken the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>In the fall of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, Nehemiah finished rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Just five days later, on the first day of the seventh month, the settlers in Judah came together to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets. During and after the festival, Ezra read from the Law, and as the people listened they mourned and wept, for they realized they had not obeyed God’s law. They confessed their sins, studied God’s word to learn what he required, and obeyed what they learned. The Book of the Law of Moses thus transformed their lives and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>These events provide a dramatic reminder that God’s word is central to the lives of his people. God’s word provides the essential guide to life or death (Gen 2:16-17), and his promises prove true (e.g., Gen 17:15-21; 18:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s word is perfect. It has the power to restore, make wise, and give joy (Ps 19:7-9). Godly individuals love God’s word (Ps 119:97). It sheds light on their paths (Ps 119:105) and keeps them from sin (Ps 119:9). God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:11) and remains perpetually relevant (Matt 5:17-19; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 24:7; 34:1; Deut 4:2; 6:4-9; 31:9-13; Josh 1:7-8; 1 Sam 15:22; Neh 8:1–10:39; 13:1-3; Pss 1:2-3; 19:7-9; 119:9, 15, 97, 105; Isa 55:10-11; Matt 5:17-19; 13:3-23; 24:35; 2 Tim 3:14-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","summary_en":"The Centrality of God’s Word When God gave the Law to his people at Sinai, it was written in stone (Exod 34:1) and was to be taught to children (Deut 6:7), worn on the hands and forehead, and written on doorposts (Deut 6:8-9), so that people would constantly be reminded of what God had said. God’s instructions were also to be read to the people every seven years so that they would remember to fear God (Deut 31:9-13). Success depended on meditating on God’s word and following it (Josh 1:7-8; P...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":41771,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69397,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97023,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124649,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11780,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ezra (Person)","title_en":"Ezra (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandments (Ezr 7:11-12; Jer 8:8). In the commission of the Persian king Artaxerxes to Ezra, the king described him as “priest” and “scribe” (Ezr 7:6-11). It was Ezra who began the traditional view of the scribe as a religious leader, a “bookman”; the view lasted until 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Scribes were qualified to teach and preach the Scriptures as well as interpret them, but by the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the scribe’s function was more specialized.<\/li>\n\n<p>As “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs” in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem about 458 <span>BC<\/span>, and on his return reported his findings. Little was done, however, until Nehemiah went to Jerusalem in 445. Once the city walls had been rebuilt, Ezra instituted a religious reformation in which the ancient Torah (the Law) was made the norm for Jewish life. He also demanded that Jews who had married foreigners must divorce them to maintain the Jewish purity the Torah required. Ezra set an example of piety and dedication through prayer and fasting, and this placed his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish commonwealth, making God’s Word and worship central features. The date and place of his death are unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of Ezrah in 1 Chronicles 4:17. <em>See<\/em> Ezrah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandments (Ezr 7:11-12; Jer 8:8). In the commission of the Persian king Artaxerxes to Ezra, the king described him as “priest” and “scribe” (Ezr 7:6-11). It was Ezra who began the traditional view of the scribe as a religious leader, a “bookman”; the view lasted until 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Scribes were qualified to teach and preach the Scriptures as well as interpret them, but by the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the scribe’s function was more specialized.<\/li>\n\n<p>As “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs” in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem about 458 <span>BC<\/span>, and on his return reported his findings. Little was done, however, until Nehemiah went to Jerusalem in 445. Once the city walls had been rebuilt, Ezra instituted a religious reformation in which the ancient Torah (the Law) was made the norm for Jewish life. He also demanded that Jews who had married foreigners must divorce them to maintain the Jewish purity the Torah required. Ezra set an example of piety and dedication through prayer and fasting, and this placed his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish commonwealth, making God’s Word and worship central features. The date and place of his death are unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of Ezrah in 1 Chronicles 4:17. <em>See<\/em> Ezrah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"EZRA (Person) 1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandment...","summary_en":"EZRA (Person) 1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandment...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11805,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ezra","title_en":"Book of Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Talmud tractate <em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (<em>Apion<\/em> 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) also grouped the two books as one, referring to them as 2 Ezra to distinguish them from an apocryphal book known as 1 Ezra. The Latin Vulgate, however, called Ezra “1 Ezra” and Nehemiah “2 Ezra.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish people came under the rule of the Persian Empire when Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. From then until Ezra’s time, the Persian kings were Cyrus (539–530 <span>BC<\/span>), who allowed the Jewish people and other captives to return to their homeland (Ezr 1); Cambyses (529–522 <span>BC<\/span>); Gaumata, a usurper of the throne (522 <span>BC<\/span>); Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 5:6); Xerxes I (OT Ahasuerus, 486–465 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:6); and Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 4:7-23; 7:1–10:44). Both Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s work fall within the period between Cyrus and Artaxerxes I. Some scholars, however, place Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>By tradition, the Jewish leader Ezra researched and put together the material that forms his book. Chapters 7–10 are written in the first person singular, and Ezra may have used the autobiographical passages as the core of this book, adding information from other sources. That the book contains portions written in Aramaic has been used as justification for assigning a date later than Ezra’s time. But the Aramaic of Ezra bears a remarkable similarity to fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> Aramaic papyri from the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The book is largely a compilation, using autobiography, official documents, edicts, and other material. The present book of Ezra contains four identifiable strata of source material.<\/p>\n<h5>Memoirs of Ezra<\/h5>\n<p>Certain sections appear in the first person singular (7:27–9:15), located between third-person narratives (7:1-26; 10). The memoirs were probably part of Ezra’s own official reports.<\/p>\n<h5>Aramaic Documents<\/h5>\n<p>Aramaic was the diplomatic language of the Persian Empire, and a number of documents appear in the book of Ezra. A letter of complaint was written to Artaxerxes I about the rebuilding of the city walls, for example, and Ezra also included the official reply (Ezr 4:8-23). There is also a letter of Darius I and the king’s reply (5:1–6:18). An official authorization by the Persian court of Artaxerxes permitted Ezra to return, and this included a description of material entrusted into his keeping (7:12-26). Since all of those sections were official correspondence, the record naturally is written in Aramaic.<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew Lists<\/h5>\n<p>Ezra included Hebrew documents listing people’s names for a number of purposes. One such document indicated the Persian government’s permission for Jewish immigrants to return to the land of Israel (Ezr 1:2-4). It was a Jewish version of Cyrus’s general edict expressing concern for all his subjects. The edict in Aramaic is repeated by Ezra in 6:3-5, and that version is probably taken from an original memorandum of a royal decision. Ezra included lists of the immigrants who returned to begin the second commonwealth of Israel (ch 2, repeated in Neh 7). The book also contains a list of immigrants who returned with Ezra by permission of Artaxerxes I (Ezr 8:1-14). Lists of those who had married pagan wives are provided as well (10:18-43).<\/p>\n<h5>Narrative<\/h5>\n<p>The rest of the book comprises narrative by Ezra himself. For the period of the first return prior to his own time, he probably drew upon existing sources, either oral or documentary. Material in the book that was contemporary with the scribe would be his personal account about his own work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, the Artaxerxes in Ezra 7:1 has been identified with Artaxerxes I Longimanus. Ezra’s arrival in Jerusalem would thus have been in 458 <span>BC<\/span> (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg for 7:8). Therefore, Ezra’s work at Jerusalem started before that of Nehemiah, who came in 445 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>But the traditional dates are questioned from a number of sources. One alternative is to place Nehemiah during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ezra at a later date, in the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404–359 <span>BC<\/span>). Such a suggestion creates a difficulty with Nehemiah 8:2, because there Ezra is named as Nehemiah’s contemporary and coworker.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the Elephantine papyri (407–400 <span>BC<\/span>) mention the high priest Johanan in Jerusalem, and Sanballat as governor of Samaria. Johanan is considered a grandson of Eliashib, but Nehemiah was a contemporary of Eliashib (Neh 3:1, 20). The biblical material that speaks of Nehemiah going to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh 2:1, 445 <span>BC<\/span>) and again during the 32nd year (Neh 13:6, 433 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Eliashib’s contemporary high priesthood with Ezra. The traditional position thus furnishes a reasonable date for the book of Ezra. If the scribe were placed during the reign of Artaxerxes II (c. 397 <span>BC<\/span>), his ministry would be too late for the high priesthood of Johanan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguagesTextsandVersions\">Languages, Texts, and Versions<\/p>\n<p>The primary language of the book of Ezra is Hebrew; the exceptions are 4:7, 6:18, and 7:12-26, which are written in Aramaic. The Hebrew portion appears to resemble the language of Daniel, Haggai, and 2 Chronicles much more than later Hebrew, such as that of Ecclesiasticus. As indicated, the Aramaic portions resemble the Elephantine papyri, dated about 407–400 <span>BC<\/span>. In addition, Persian personal and family names and Persian words and expressions occur in the book, such as Bigvai, Mithredath, and Elam. All of these evidences serve to place the book in about the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew Masoretic Text of Ezra seems well preserved. The Septuagint version is a bit shorter than the Masoretic Text. Only parts of Ezra 4 and 5 have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandContent\">Purpose and Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ezra is a straightforward account of one of the most important events in Jewish history. From a priestly point of view, it is an account of the restoration of Jewish people to their homeland following the Babylonian dispersion. The record tells of two distinct returns, one under the leadership of Zerubbabel (chs 1–6; 538 <span>BC<\/span>), and 80 years later, the second return led by Ezra (chs 7–10; 458 <span>BC<\/span>). The book emphasizes Ezra’s leadership and the reestablishment of the people on their land, both of which were to have important future consequences.<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about the political activity of Ezra in the Persian court. He appears to have been a man of considerable influence, however, and could well be described as an official who held a position corresponding to that of “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs.” To what extent that function applied to the Persian Empire as a whole is uncertain, since Ezra’s recorded activities took place only in the area known to the Persians as the province “Beyond the River,” that is, the territory lying to the west of the Euphrates. The importance of Ezra’s position in the Persian Empire is indicated by the fact that King Artaxerxes gave him full authority to do whatever he thought necessary for the welfare of his people and the empire (7:21-26). Ezra’s genealogy is given in 7:1-5, and he is consistently spoken of as a scribe learned in the Mosaic law. As a descendant of Zadok the priest, he would have the authority to instruct others in the Torah.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 4 speaks of the opposition to rebuilding the temple and the walls. We should recognize that Ezra’s approach in this chapter is topical rather than chronological where, in the middle of describing the earlier opposition to building the temple (5:1-5), he complained that the same kind of opposition was being repeated in his day concerning the attempt to rebuild the city walls and repair the fortifications of Jerusalem (5:7-23). Internal evidence suggests that a long historical interval ensued during the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes, and the early part of Artaxerxes’ regime. During this period, complaints were made to the Persian authorities that the returned Judeans were rebuilding the city wall of Jerusalem, and as a result the work was halted for some time. It readily can be seen that Ezra was dealing with the evil intentions of Judah’s enemies and that the opposition of Rehum and Shimshai did not appear in the 520s (when the temple was being built) because they lived in the 460s, early in the reign of Artaxerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>But the initial passage is actually a history of opposition to rebuilding the ruined temple. It narrates the frustrations experienced by the Judean community from the time of return to their homeland during Cyrus’s rule (4:1-5) up to the time of King Darius (v 24). The prophet Haggai (520 <span>BC<\/span>) aroused the people with his message and persuaded them to lay the foundations of the new temple.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra resumes the theme of the book in chapter 5. He points out the problems, frustrations, and hindrances the Jewish people had with the construction of the temple. It was not until a diligent search had been made in the archives by the Persian authorities that the original edict granting permission to build the temple was found (5:7–6:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra (Person) #1; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","summary_en":"EZRA, Book of One of the historical books of the OT, associated with 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. Preview • Name • Background • Sources • Date • Languages, Texts, and Versions • Purpose and Content Name In the Talmud tractate Baba Bathra 15a, the rabbis and scribes regarded Ezra and Nehemiah as one book. Josephus (Apion 1.8) also considered the two books to be one when the number of OT books was given as 22. Some church fathers, such as Melito of Sardis and Jerome, thought of them as one book. ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48200,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","summary_en":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75826,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","summary_en":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103452,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","summary_en":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131078,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:2","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:2<\/strong> <em>on October 8:<\/em> The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","summary_en":"8:2 on October 8: The people came together on this day to celebrate the Festival of Trumpets (Lev 23:24-25), which marked the beginning of a new year in the postexilic calendar.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":38239,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Water Gate","title_en":"Water Gate","content_ro":"<h3>WATER GATE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the principal gates on the east side of Jerusalem. It was rebuilt during Nehemiah’s day and served as the location for Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh 3:26; 8:3, 16; 12:37).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WATER GATE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the principal gates on the east side of Jerusalem. It was rebuilt during Nehemiah’s day and served as the location for Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh 3:26; 8:3, 16; 12:37).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WATER GATE One of the principal gates on the east side of Jerusalem. It was rebuilt during Nehemiah’s day and served as the location for Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh 3:26; 8:3, 16; 12:37).","summary_en":"WATER GATE One of the principal gates on the east side of Jerusalem. It was rebuilt during Nehemiah’s day and served as the location for Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh 3:26; 8:3, 16; 12:37).","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48201,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","summary_en":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75827,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","summary_en":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103453,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","summary_en":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131079,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:3","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:3<\/strong> The timeframe <em>from early morning until noon<\/em> provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • <em>understand<\/em> (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","summary_en":"8:3 The timeframe from early morning until noon provided about six hours for reading and interpreting (8:7-8). • understand (see also 8:2, 8, 12): This was not just a ritual reading of the law. It included explanations, insight, and application.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":1536,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anaiah","title_en":"Anaiah","content_ro":"<h3>ANAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest and assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ANAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Priest and assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ANAIAH 1. Priest and assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.","summary_en":"ANAIAH 1. Priest and assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4). 2. Political leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13452,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15436,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hashbaddanah","title_en":"Hashbaddanah","content_ro":"<h3>HASHBADDANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Man, possibly of Levite origin, who stood on Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HASHBADDANAH<\/h3>\n<p>Man, possibly of Levite origin, who stood on Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HASHBADDANAH Man, possibly of Levite origin, who stood on Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).","summary_en":"HASHBADDANAH Man, possibly of Levite origin, who stood on Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15444,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hashum","title_en":"Hashum","content_ro":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HASHUM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22).<\/li>\n<li>2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","summary_en":"HASHUM 1. Ancestor of a family who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:19; 10:33; Neh 7:22). 2. Israelite who stood to Ezra’s left at the reading of the law (Neh 8:4). 3. Leader who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:18).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16428,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hilkiah","title_en":"Hilkiah","content_ro":"<h3>HILKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Eliakim, an overseer in King Hezekiah’s household (2 Kgs 18:18, 26; Is 22:20; 36:3, 22).<\/li>\n<li>2. High priest and Shallum’s son in the reign of King Josiah who, during the repair of the temple, found the Book of the Law (2 Kgs 22:3-14; 1 Chr 6:13; 9:11; 2 Chr 34:14-22). According to Ezra 7:1 (cf. 1 Esd 8:1), he was also an ancestor of Ezra. He is an important figure in the events surrounding Josiah’s religious reform, not only because he found the Book of the Law, but also because he led the king’s messengers to consult Huldah the prophetess regarding God’s Word (2 Kgs 22:14) and later presided over the purification of the temple (23:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Merarite Levite, the son of Amzi and Amaziah’s father (1 Chr 6:45).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who was appointed as a gatekeeper in the temple by David (1 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Companion of Ezra at the public reading of the law (Neh 8:4). Scholars disagree as to whether he was a layman or a priest.<\/li>\n<li>6. Priest among the returned exiles (Neh 12:7).<\/li>\n<li>7. Anathoth priest who was the father of Jeremiah (Jer 1:1).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Gemariah whom King Zedekiah sent to Babylon with a letter of assurance from Jeremiah (Jer 29:3).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HILKIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Father of Eliakim, an overseer in King Hezekiah’s household (2 Kgs 18:18, 26; Is 22:20; 36:3, 22).<\/li>\n<li>2. High priest and Shallum’s son in the reign of King Josiah who, during the repair of the temple, found the Book of the Law (2 Kgs 22:3-14; 1 Chr 6:13; 9:11; 2 Chr 34:14-22). According to Ezra 7:1 (cf. 1 Esd 8:1), he was also an ancestor of Ezra. He is an important figure in the events surrounding Josiah’s religious reform, not only because he found the Book of the Law, but also because he led the king’s messengers to consult Huldah the prophetess regarding God’s Word (2 Kgs 22:14) and later presided over the purification of the temple (23:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Merarite Levite, the son of Amzi and Amaziah’s father (1 Chr 6:45).<\/li>\n<li>4. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who was appointed as a gatekeeper in the temple by David (1 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Companion of Ezra at the public reading of the law (Neh 8:4). Scholars disagree as to whether he was a layman or a priest.<\/li>\n<li>6. Priest among the returned exiles (Neh 12:7).<\/li>\n<li>7. Anathoth priest who was the father of Jeremiah (Jer 1:1).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Gemariah whom King Zedekiah sent to Babylon with a letter of assurance from Jeremiah (Jer 29:3).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HILKIAH 1. Father of Eliakim, an overseer in King Hezekiah’s household (2 Kgs 18:18, 26; Is 22:20; 36:3, 22). 2. High priest and Shallum’s son in the reign of King Josiah who, during the repair of the temple, found the Book of the Law (2 Kgs 22:3-14; 1 Chr 6:13; 9:11; 2 Chr 34:14-22). According to Ezra 7:1 (cf. 1 Esd 8:1), he was also an ancestor of Ezra. He is an important figure in the events surrounding Josiah’s religious reform, not only because he found the Book of the Law, but also beca...","summary_en":"HILKIAH 1. Father of Eliakim, an overseer in King Hezekiah’s household (2 Kgs 18:18, 26; Is 22:20; 36:3, 22). 2. High priest and Shallum’s son in the reign of King Josiah who, during the repair of the temple, found the Book of the Law (2 Kgs 22:3-14; 1 Chr 6:13; 9:11; 2 Chr 34:14-22). According to Ezra 7:1 (cf. 1 Esd 8:1), he was also an ancestor of Ezra. He is an important figure in the events surrounding Josiah’s religious reform, not only because he found the Book of the Law, but also beca...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23766,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maaseiah","title_en":"Maaseiah","content_ro":"<h3>MAASEIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to assist in repairing the temple (2 Chr 34:8).<\/li>\n<li> 6–8. Three priests who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18-22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pahath-moab’s son (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Azariah, a repairman of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ezra’s attendant when he read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who, with others, helped the people to understand the law Ezra read (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>13. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant under Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>14. Judahite leader and the son of Baruch, who lived in Jerusalem with those chosen by lot to inherit the rebuilt city (Neh 11:5). He is sometimes identified with the Asaiah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>\n<li>15. Ithiel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe who was chosen to live in Jerusalem (Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priestly trumpeter at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>17. Priestly singer at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>18. Father of Zephaniah the priest. Zephaniah, with Pashhur, was sent to Jeremiah by King Zedekiah to inquire of the Lord concerning the future of Nebuchadnezzar’s war against Jerusalem (Jer 21:1-2; 29:25) and to request that Jeremiah pray for Jerusalem (37:3).<\/li>\n<li>19. Father of Zedekiah the false prophet, an opponent of Jeremiah’s prophecy about Jerusalem’s fall under Nebuchadnezzar’s siege (Jer 29:21).<\/li>\n<li>20. KJV form of Mahseiah, Baruch’s forefather, in Jeremiah 32:12 and 51:59. <em>See<\/em> Mahseiah.<\/li>\n<li>21. Keeper of the threshold during Jehoiakim’s reign (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MAASEIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to assist in repairing the temple (2 Chr 34:8).<\/li>\n<li> 6–8. Three priests who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18-22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pahath-moab’s son (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Azariah, a repairman of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ezra’s attendant when he read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who, with others, helped the people to understand the law Ezra read (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>13. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant under Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>14. Judahite leader and the son of Baruch, who lived in Jerusalem with those chosen by lot to inherit the rebuilt city (Neh 11:5). He is sometimes identified with the Asaiah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>\n<li>15. Ithiel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe who was chosen to live in Jerusalem (Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priestly trumpeter at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>17. Priestly singer at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>18. Father of Zephaniah the priest. Zephaniah, with Pashhur, was sent to Jeremiah by King Zedekiah to inquire of the Lord concerning the future of Nebuchadnezzar’s war against Jerusalem (Jer 21:1-2; 29:25) and to request that Jeremiah pray for Jerusalem (37:3).<\/li>\n<li>19. Father of Zedekiah the false prophet, an opponent of Jeremiah’s prophecy about Jerusalem’s fall under Nebuchadnezzar’s siege (Jer 29:21).<\/li>\n<li>20. KJV form of Mahseiah, Baruch’s forefather, in Jeremiah 32:12 and 51:59. <em>See<\/em> Mahseiah.<\/li>\n<li>21. Keeper of the threshold during Jehoiakim’s reign (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MAASEIAH 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20). 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1). 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7). 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to ass...","summary_en":"MAASEIAH 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20). 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1). 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7). 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to ass...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24084,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Malchiah*","title_en":"Malchiah*","content_ro":"<h3>MALCHIAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Gershon’s descendant, in 1 Chronicles 6:40. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Parosh’s son, in Ezra 10:25. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Harim’s son, in Ezra 10:31. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #6.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Recab’s son, in Nehemiah 3:14. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #7.<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling of Malchijah the goldsmith in Nehemiah 3:31. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #8.<\/li>\n<li>6. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Ezra’s assistant, in Nehemiah 8:4. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #9.<\/li>\n<li>7. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Adaiah’s forefather, in Nehemiah 11:12. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #2.<\/li>\n<li>8. KJV spelling of Malchijah, the royal prince in whose cistern Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6). Malchiah is also spelled Melchiah (21:1). <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #12.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MALCHIAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Gershon’s descendant, in 1 Chronicles 6:40. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #1.<\/li>\n<li>2. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Parosh’s son, in Ezra 10:25. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #4.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Harim’s son, in Ezra 10:31. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #6.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Recab’s son, in Nehemiah 3:14. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #7.<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling of Malchijah the goldsmith in Nehemiah 3:31. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #8.<\/li>\n<li>6. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Ezra’s assistant, in Nehemiah 8:4. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #9.<\/li>\n<li>7. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Adaiah’s forefather, in Nehemiah 11:12. <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #2.<\/li>\n<li>8. KJV spelling of Malchijah, the royal prince in whose cistern Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6). Malchiah is also spelled Melchiah (21:1). <em>See<\/em> Malchijah #12.<\/li>","summary_ro":"MALCHIAH* 1. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Gershon’s descendant, in 1 Chronicles 6:40. See Malchijah #1. 2. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Parosh’s son, in Ezra 10:25. See Malchijah #4. 3. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Harim’s son, in Ezra 10:31. See Malchijah #6. 4. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Recab’s son, in Nehemiah 3:14. See Malchijah #7. 5. KJV spelling of Malchijah the goldsmith in Nehemiah 3:31. See Malchijah #8. 6. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Ezra’s assistant, in Nehemiah 8:4. See Malchijah #9. 7...","summary_en":"MALCHIAH* 1. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Gershon’s descendant, in 1 Chronicles 6:40. See Malchijah #1. 2. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Parosh’s son, in Ezra 10:25. See Malchijah #4. 3. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Harim’s son, in Ezra 10:31. See Malchijah #6. 4. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Recab’s son, in Nehemiah 3:14. See Malchijah #7. 5. KJV spelling of Malchijah the goldsmith in Nehemiah 3:31. See Malchijah #8. 6. KJV spelling of Malchijah, Ezra’s assistant, in Nehemiah 8:4. See Malchijah #9. 7...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24100,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Malchijah*","title_en":"Malchijah*","content_ro":"<h3>MALCHIJAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Gershon’s descendant, appointed by David, along with the rest of his family, to serve as a temple musician (1 Chr 6:40, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest who served in the time of David (1 Chr 9:12). His descendants were among those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest in David’s reign (1 Chr 24:9); perhaps the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Parosh’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:25, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”).<\/li>\n<li> 5. KJV rendering of Hashabiah, another of Parosh’s sons, in Ezra 10:25. <em>See<\/em> Hashabiah #9.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Harim’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:31, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”). He repaired part of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:11).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Recab’s son and the ruler of Beth-hakkerem. Under Nehemiah’s direction, he repaired the Dung Gate of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:14).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Goldsmith who worked under Nehemiah’s direction to help repair the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:31).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One who stood to Ezra’s left during the public reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>10. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>11. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Royal prince who owned a cistern in which the prophet Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6). Malchijah’s son Pashhur (21:1; 38:1) was one of those who, after hearing the harsh prophecies of Jeremiah, appealed to King Zedekiah to put Jeremiah to death. The princes attempted to do so by throwing him into Malchijah’s cistern.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MALCHIJAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. Gershon’s descendant, appointed by David, along with the rest of his family, to serve as a temple musician (1 Chr 6:40, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”).<\/li>\n<li>2. Priest who served in the time of David (1 Chr 9:12). His descendants were among those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest in David’s reign (1 Chr 24:9); perhaps the same as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Parosh’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:25, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”).<\/li>\n<li> 5. KJV rendering of Hashabiah, another of Parosh’s sons, in Ezra 10:25. <em>See<\/em> Hashabiah #9.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Harim’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:31, <span>kjv<\/span> “Malchiah”). He repaired part of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah (Neh 3:11).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Recab’s son and the ruler of Beth-hakkerem. Under Nehemiah’s direction, he repaired the Dung Gate of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:14).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Goldsmith who worked under Nehemiah’s direction to help repair the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:31).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One who stood to Ezra’s left during the public reading of the law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>10. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:3).<\/li>\n<li>11. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>12. Royal prince who owned a cistern in which the prophet Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer 38:6). Malchijah’s son Pashhur (21:1; 38:1) was one of those who, after hearing the harsh prophecies of Jeremiah, appealed to King Zedekiah to put Jeremiah to death. The princes attempted to do so by throwing him into Malchijah’s cistern.<\/li>","summary_ro":"MALCHIJAH* 1. Gershon’s descendant, appointed by David, along with the rest of his family, to serve as a temple musician (1 Chr 6:40, kjv “Malchiah”). 2. Priest who served in the time of David (1 Chr 9:12). His descendants were among those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh 11:12). 3. Priest in David’s reign (1 Chr 24:9); perhaps the same as #2 above. 4. Parosh’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:25, kjv “Malchiah”). 5. KJV render...","summary_en":"MALCHIJAH* 1. Gershon’s descendant, appointed by David, along with the rest of his family, to serve as a temple musician (1 Chr 6:40, kjv “Malchiah”). 2. Priest who served in the time of David (1 Chr 9:12). His descendants were among those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh 11:12). 3. Priest in David’s reign (1 Chr 24:9); perhaps the same as #2 above. 4. Parosh’s son, who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce his pagan wife after the exile (Ezr 10:25, kjv “Malchiah”). 5. KJV render...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24870,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mattithiah","title_en":"Mattithiah","content_ro":"<h3>MATTITHIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and Shallum’s firstborn son, who was in charge of making the baked cakes that accompanied the offerings in the temple (1 Chr 9:31).<\/li>\n<li>2. Musician appointed by the Levites to play the lyre, along with five others, when the ark was brought to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of Jeduthun’s six sons, who was a musician in David’s time (1 Chr 25:3, 21); perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>4. Nebo’s son, who divorced his foreign wife as commanded by Ezra (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood to Ezra’s right when Ezra read the law to the people after the exile (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MATTITHIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and Shallum’s firstborn son, who was in charge of making the baked cakes that accompanied the offerings in the temple (1 Chr 9:31).<\/li>\n<li>2. Musician appointed by the Levites to play the lyre, along with five others, when the ark was brought to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of Jeduthun’s six sons, who was a musician in David’s time (1 Chr 25:3, 21); perhaps identifiable with #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>4. Nebo’s son, who divorced his foreign wife as commanded by Ezra (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood to Ezra’s right when Ezra read the law to the people after the exile (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MATTITHIAH 1. Levite and Shallum’s firstborn son, who was in charge of making the baked cakes that accompanied the offerings in the temple (1 Chr 9:31). 2. Musician appointed by the Levites to play the lyre, along with five others, when the ark was brought to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5). 3. One of Jeduthun’s six sons, who was a musician in David’s time (1 Chr 25:3, 21); perhaps identifiable with #2 above. 4. Nebo’s son, who divorced his foreign wife as commanded by Ezra ...","summary_en":"MATTITHIAH 1. Levite and Shallum’s firstborn son, who was in charge of making the baked cakes that accompanied the offerings in the temple (1 Chr 9:31). 2. Musician appointed by the Levites to play the lyre, along with five others, when the ark was brought to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5). 3. One of Jeduthun’s six sons, who was a musician in David’s time (1 Chr 25:3, 21); perhaps identifiable with #2 above. 4. Nebo’s son, who divorced his foreign wife as commanded by Ezra ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25328,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Meshullam","title_en":"Meshullam","content_ro":"<h3>MESHULLAM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Benjamite and the son of Shephatiah, who resided in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest, the son of Zadok and the father of Hilkiah, whose descendants served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:11; Neh 11:11). He is probably identical with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Priest, the son of Meshillemith and a forefather of Adaiah. Adaiah served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:12).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylonia (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. One who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married since returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15).<\/li>\n<li>12. Bani’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li>13. Berekiah’s son, who rebuilt a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 30). His daughter married Jehohanan, the son of Tobiah the Ammonite (6:18).<\/li>\n<li>14. Besodeiah’s son, who with Joiada repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>16. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:7).<\/li>\n<li>17. One of the leaders of Israel who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:20).<\/li>\n<li>18. Head of Ezra’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>19. Head of Ginnethon’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim (Neh 12:16).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the gatekeepers during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:25); perhaps identifiable with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 9:17.<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic era (Neh 12:33).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESHULLAM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Benjamite and the son of Shephatiah, who resided in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest, the son of Zadok and the father of Hilkiah, whose descendants served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:11; Neh 11:11). He is probably identical with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Priest, the son of Meshillemith and a forefather of Adaiah. Adaiah served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:12).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylonia (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. One who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married since returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15).<\/li>\n<li>12. Bani’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li>13. Berekiah’s son, who rebuilt a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 30). His daughter married Jehohanan, the son of Tobiah the Ammonite (6:18).<\/li>\n<li>14. Besodeiah’s son, who with Joiada repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>16. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:7).<\/li>\n<li>17. One of the leaders of Israel who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:20).<\/li>\n<li>18. Head of Ezra’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>19. Head of Ginnethon’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim (Neh 12:16).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the gatekeepers during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:25); perhaps identifiable with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 9:17.<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic era (Neh 12:33).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESHULLAM 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3). 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19). 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 BC), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 BC; 1 Chr 5:13). 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17). 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7). 6. Benjamite and the son of Shep...","summary_en":"MESHULLAM 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3). 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19). 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 BC), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 BC; 1 Chr 5:13). 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17). 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7). 6. Benjamite and the son of Shep...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26069,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mishael","title_en":"Mishael","content_ro":"<h3>MISHAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Uzziel’s son (Ex 6:22), who, with his brother Elzaphan, was summoned by Moses to remove the bodies of Nadab and Abihu after they were killed for defiling the altar of the Lord (Lv 10:1-5).<\/li>\n<li>2. One who stood beside Ezra when the law was read (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hebrew name for one of Daniel’s companions in Babylon (Dn 1:6), who, with Daniel and two others, remained faithful to God (vv 11, 19) and was delivered from the fiery furnace into which he had been cast for refusing to obey the king’s edict (ch 3). His Babylonian name was Meshach (1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MISHAEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Uzziel’s son (Ex 6:22), who, with his brother Elzaphan, was summoned by Moses to remove the bodies of Nadab and Abihu after they were killed for defiling the altar of the Lord (Lv 10:1-5).<\/li>\n<li>2. One who stood beside Ezra when the law was read (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hebrew name for one of Daniel’s companions in Babylon (Dn 1:6), who, with Daniel and two others, remained faithful to God (vv 11, 19) and was delivered from the fiery furnace into which he had been cast for refusing to obey the king’s edict (ch 3). His Babylonian name was Meshach (1:7).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MISHAEL 1. Uzziel’s son (Ex 6:22), who, with his brother Elzaphan, was summoned by Moses to remove the bodies of Nadab and Abihu after they were killed for defiling the altar of the Lord (Lv 10:1-5). 2. One who stood beside Ezra when the law was read (Neh 8:4). 3. Hebrew name for one of Daniel’s companions in Babylon (Dn 1:6), who, with Daniel and two others, remained faithful to God (vv 11, 19) and was delivered from the fiery furnace into which he had been cast for refusing to obey the king...","summary_en":"MISHAEL 1. Uzziel’s son (Ex 6:22), who, with his brother Elzaphan, was summoned by Moses to remove the bodies of Nadab and Abihu after they were killed for defiling the altar of the Lord (Lv 10:1-5). 2. One who stood beside Ezra when the law was read (Neh 8:4). 3. Hebrew name for one of Daniel’s companions in Babylon (Dn 1:6), who, with Daniel and two others, remained faithful to God (vv 11, 19) and was delivered from the fiery furnace into which he had been cast for refusing to obey the king...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29418,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pedaiah","title_en":"Pedaiah","content_ro":"<h3>PEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in Jerusalem after the return from exile.<\/li>\n<li>7. Levite appointed by Nehemiah as treasurer of the storehouse to distribute grain, wine, and oil to the priests who served in the temple (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PEDAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25).<\/li>\n<li>5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in Jerusalem after the return from exile.<\/li>\n<li>7. Levite appointed by Nehemiah as treasurer of the storehouse to distribute grain, wine, and oil to the priests who served in the temple (Neh 13:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PEDAIAH 1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36). 2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19). 3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20). 4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25). 5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4). 6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in J...","summary_en":"PEDAIAH 1. Maternal grandfather of Judah’s King Jehoiakim. Pedaiah was from Rumah (2 Kgs 23:36). 2. Jeconiah’s third son (1 Chr 3:18-19). 3. Joel’s father from the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 27:20). 4. Parosh’s son, who worked with the temple servants in repairing the Jerusalem wall opposite the Water Gate (Neh 3:25). 5. One who stood beside Ezra during the public reading of the Law (Neh 8:4). 6. Kolaiah’s son and Joed’s father (Neh 11:7). He was a member of Benjamin’s tribe and lived in J...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34873,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shema (Person)","title_en":"Shema (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","summary_en":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37898,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uriah","title_en":"Uriah","content_ro":"<h3>URIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Hittite who joined the people of Israel, became a leader in David’s army, and was listed among the king’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:39; 1 Chr 11:41). Uriah’s wife was Bathsheba, with whom David committed adultery while Uriah was fighting the Ammonites. Upon learning that she was pregnant, David summoned Uriah to Jerusalem, hoping that Uriah would sleep with his wife and consider himself the child’s father. However, Uriah slept in the servants’ quarters because he was unwilling to enjoy the comforts of home while his companions were at war. The second night David again tried to entice him to sleep with his wife. Even after falling into a drunken stupor, Uriah still could not be persuaded to go home; instead, he spent the night at the palace. To deepen the intrigue, David sent Uriah back to the battle, ordering him positioned at a vulnerable place, where he was killed (2 Sm 11; Mt 1:6).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest who built an altar at Jerusalem in imitation of an Assyrian model at King Ahaz of Judah’s request (2 Kgs 16:10-16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who was the father of Meremoth. Meremoth weighed the silver, gold, and vessels for the temple (Ezr 8:33) and built portions of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 21).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s right when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4). He is perhaps the same man as #3 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest whom Isaiah took as a witness (Is 8:2). He is perhaps the same man as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Prophet and Shemaiah’s son from Kiriath-jearim. Uriah enraged King Jehoiakim by prophesying against Judah and Jerusalem. Fearing for his life, Uriah fled to Egypt but was eventually abducted and brought back to King Jehoiakim, who subsequently put him to death (Jer 26:20-23).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>URIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Hittite who joined the people of Israel, became a leader in David’s army, and was listed among the king’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:39; 1 Chr 11:41). Uriah’s wife was Bathsheba, with whom David committed adultery while Uriah was fighting the Ammonites. Upon learning that she was pregnant, David summoned Uriah to Jerusalem, hoping that Uriah would sleep with his wife and consider himself the child’s father. However, Uriah slept in the servants’ quarters because he was unwilling to enjoy the comforts of home while his companions were at war. The second night David again tried to entice him to sleep with his wife. Even after falling into a drunken stupor, Uriah still could not be persuaded to go home; instead, he spent the night at the palace. To deepen the intrigue, David sent Uriah back to the battle, ordering him positioned at a vulnerable place, where he was killed (2 Sm 11; Mt 1:6).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest who built an altar at Jerusalem in imitation of an Assyrian model at King Ahaz of Judah’s request (2 Kgs 16:10-16).<\/li>\n<li>3. Priest who was the father of Meremoth. Meremoth weighed the silver, gold, and vessels for the temple (Ezr 8:33) and built portions of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 21).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s right when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4). He is perhaps the same man as #3 above.<\/li>\n<li>5. Priest whom Isaiah took as a witness (Is 8:2). He is perhaps the same man as #2 above.<\/li>\n<li>6. Prophet and Shemaiah’s son from Kiriath-jearim. Uriah enraged King Jehoiakim by prophesying against Judah and Jerusalem. Fearing for his life, Uriah fled to Egypt but was eventually abducted and brought back to King Jehoiakim, who subsequently put him to death (Jer 26:20-23).<\/li>","summary_ro":"URIAH 1. Hittite who joined the people of Israel, became a leader in David’s army, and was listed among the king’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:39; 1 Chr 11:41). Uriah’s wife was Bathsheba, with whom David committed adultery while Uriah was fighting the Ammonites. Upon learning that she was pregnant, David summoned Uriah to Jerusalem, hoping that Uriah would sleep with his wife and consider himself the child’s father. However, Uriah slept in the servants’ quarters because he was unwilling to enjoy the...","summary_en":"URIAH 1. Hittite who joined the people of Israel, became a leader in David’s army, and was listed among the king’s mighty men (2 Sm 23:39; 1 Chr 11:41). Uriah’s wife was Bathsheba, with whom David committed adultery while Uriah was fighting the Ammonites. Upon learning that she was pregnant, David summoned Uriah to Jerusalem, hoping that Uriah would sleep with his wife and consider himself the child’s father. However, Uriah slept in the servants’ quarters because he was unwilling to enjoy the...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39051,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zechariah (Person)","title_en":"Zechariah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ZECHARIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.”<\/p>\n<p> 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 <span>BC<\/span>, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generation (10:30), was fulfilled with Zechariah’s reign.<\/p>\n<li> 2. Father of Abi (or Abijah, 2 Chr 29:1). Abi was the mother of Hezekiah, who later ruled Judah for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Reubenite and leader of his tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Korahite Levite, firstborn of Meshelemiah’s seven sons and a wise counselor, selected by lot to oversee the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s northern entrance during David’s reign (1 Chr 9:21; 26:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite and descendant of Jeiel (1 Chr 9:37). He is alternately called Zeker, perhaps an abbreviation of Zechariah, in 1 Chronicles 8:31.<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the eight Levites assigned to play a harp before the ark of God in the procession led by David when the ark was brought from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18, 20; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the priests assigned to blow a trumpet in the procession led by David when the ark was brought to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and a descendant of Isshiah, who served in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:25).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who served as one of the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s western entrance, at the gate of Halleketh, during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:11-12, 16).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Iddo. Iddo was the chief officer of the half-tribe of Manasseh in Gilead during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:21).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the officials sent by King Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite and Jahaziel’s father (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of King Jehoshaphat’s seven sons and the brother of Jehoram. Jehoram became sole regent of Judah (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>) at his father’s death (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Jehoiada the priest, who rebuked the princes of Judah for turning against the Lord and worshiping false gods. Enraged by Zechariah’s rebuff, they conspired against him, and at King Joash’s command, stoned him to death in the court of the sanctuary (2 Chr 24:20-22). The Lord, however, avenged Zechariah’s death by allowing the Syrians to defeat Judah, kill the princes, and severely wound Joash, who was subsequently killed by two of his own servants.<\/li>\n<p>In his castigation of his own generation of Jewish leaders, Jesus alluded to Zechariah’s shameful murder in the temple’s sacred precincts: “You will become guilty of murdering all the godly people from righteous Abel to Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered in the Temple between the altar and the sanctuary” (Mt 23:35, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abel was the first and Zechariah the last of the recorded prophets of God who were unjustly slain, according to the OT.<\/p>\n<li>15. Man who counseled King Uzziah of Judah to walk in the fear of God (2 Chr 26:5).<\/li>\n<li>16. Abijah’s father. Abijah was the mother of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. Gershonite Levite descended from Asaph, who along with Mattaniah his kinsman was chosen by King Hezekiah to help cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li>18. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. One of the chief officers of the house of God who generously gave animals to the priests for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:8).<\/li>\n<li>20. Prophet, Berechiah’s son and the grandson of Iddo, who began prophesying as a young man in 520 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of King Darius I of Persia (Zec 1:1; cf. 2:4). Little is known about the prophet. He ministered with Haggai, his contemporary, in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel, the governor, and Jeshua, the high priest (Ezr 5:1). He exhorted the Jews to finish building the second temple (6:14) and headed Iddo’s priestly family during Joiakim’s term as high priest (Neh 12:16). Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah served as both priest and prophet (Zec 1:1, 7; 7:1, 8).<\/li>\n<p>Numerous suggestions have been offered to resolve the discrepancy of Zechariah’s pedigree. In the Ezra and Nehemiah passages, Iddo is listed as his father, whereas in Zechariah, Berechiah is the father. Some conclude that Berechiah and Iddo were different names for the same person, or that Berechiah’s name (Zec 1:1, 7) was a later scribal emendation that confused Jeberechiah’s son with Iddo’s son (cf. Is 8:2). A more plausible theory identifies Iddo as Zechariah’s grandfather, the renowned head of his family, who returned to Jerusalem from exile in 538 <span>BC<\/span>. Either by Berechiah’s early death or by the precedence of his grandfather’s name, Zechariah was considered Iddo’s successor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>21. Parosh’s descendant and the head of his father’s household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:3).<\/li>\n<li>22. Bebai’s son and the head of a household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:11).<\/li>\n<li>23. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo, the man in charge at Casiphia, to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>24. One of the six descendants of Elam who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>\n<li>25. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>26. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Athaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>27. Descendant of Shelah and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Maaseiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:5).<\/li>\n<li>28. Priest, descendant of Malkijah and an ancestor of a family of priests headed by Adaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. Jonathan’s son, a descendant of Asaph. He led a group of the priestly musicians who played trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>30. Priest who played a trumpet at the Jerusalem wall’s dedication (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>31. Jeberechiah’s son and undoubtedly a man of distinction who, along with Uriah the priest, publicly witnessed Isaiah’s writing of the puzzling expression “Maher-shalal-hash-baz,” which later prophetically revealed God’s intended judgment on Damascus and Samaria (Is 8:2).<\/li>\n<li>32. John the Baptist’s father, priest of Abijah’s division, and the husband of Elizabeth, a woman of priestly descent. His story is recounted in Luke 1. They lived in the Judean hill country during King Herod the Great’s reign (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>; Lk 1:5). Zechariah and Elizabeth both lived righteous and pious lives; however, they were advanced in years and still had no children.<\/li>\n<p>As priest, Zechariah was one of the men chosen to represent his division in its yearly appointed session of service in the Jerusalem temple (the priests of Israel were divided into 24 orders, each being assigned an annual two-week period of service in the temple). One day while serving in Jerusalem, Zechariah was selected by lot to burn incense in the temple’s Holy Place, a privilege granted to a priest only once in his lifetime. While performing this temple duty, the angel Gabriel appeared to him, telling him that Elizabeth his wife, though barren, would bear him a son, whose name would be called John and who would prepare the way for the Messiah. As a sign confirming the angel’s report, Zechariah was made mute for his disbelief that, in their old age, he and Elizabeth would produce a child. When Zechariah returned to the temple court, the gathered multitude perceived that the gesturing priest had seen a vision.<\/p>\n<p>Elizabeth became pregnant as promised and in her sixth month was visited by her relative Mary, who was also with child. Later, shortly after the baby’s birth, Zechariah affirmed that his son’s name would be John, at which time his speech was restored and he was filled with the Holy Spirit, prophesying and praising God for the work that he was about to do in Israel.<\/p>\n<li>33. Original name proposed for John the Baptist after his father’s name (Lk 1:59). <em>See<\/em> John the Baptist.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZECHARIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.”<\/p>\n<p> 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 <span>BC<\/span>, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generation (10:30), was fulfilled with Zechariah’s reign.<\/p>\n<li> 2. Father of Abi (or Abijah, 2 Chr 29:1). Abi was the mother of Hezekiah, who later ruled Judah for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Reubenite and leader of his tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Korahite Levite, firstborn of Meshelemiah’s seven sons and a wise counselor, selected by lot to oversee the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s northern entrance during David’s reign (1 Chr 9:21; 26:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite and descendant of Jeiel (1 Chr 9:37). He is alternately called Zeker, perhaps an abbreviation of Zechariah, in 1 Chronicles 8:31.<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the eight Levites assigned to play a harp before the ark of God in the procession led by David when the ark was brought from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18, 20; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the priests assigned to blow a trumpet in the procession led by David when the ark was brought to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and a descendant of Isshiah, who served in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:25).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who served as one of the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s western entrance, at the gate of Halleketh, during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:11-12, 16).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Iddo. Iddo was the chief officer of the half-tribe of Manasseh in Gilead during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:21).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the officials sent by King Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite and Jahaziel’s father (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of King Jehoshaphat’s seven sons and the brother of Jehoram. Jehoram became sole regent of Judah (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>) at his father’s death (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Jehoiada the priest, who rebuked the princes of Judah for turning against the Lord and worshiping false gods. Enraged by Zechariah’s rebuff, they conspired against him, and at King Joash’s command, stoned him to death in the court of the sanctuary (2 Chr 24:20-22). The Lord, however, avenged Zechariah’s death by allowing the Syrians to defeat Judah, kill the princes, and severely wound Joash, who was subsequently killed by two of his own servants.<\/li>\n<p>In his castigation of his own generation of Jewish leaders, Jesus alluded to Zechariah’s shameful murder in the temple’s sacred precincts: “You will become guilty of murdering all the godly people from righteous Abel to Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered in the Temple between the altar and the sanctuary” (Mt 23:35, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abel was the first and Zechariah the last of the recorded prophets of God who were unjustly slain, according to the OT.<\/p>\n<li>15. Man who counseled King Uzziah of Judah to walk in the fear of God (2 Chr 26:5).<\/li>\n<li>16. Abijah’s father. Abijah was the mother of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. Gershonite Levite descended from Asaph, who along with Mattaniah his kinsman was chosen by King Hezekiah to help cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li>18. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. One of the chief officers of the house of God who generously gave animals to the priests for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:8).<\/li>\n<li>20. Prophet, Berechiah’s son and the grandson of Iddo, who began prophesying as a young man in 520 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of King Darius I of Persia (Zec 1:1; cf. 2:4). Little is known about the prophet. He ministered with Haggai, his contemporary, in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel, the governor, and Jeshua, the high priest (Ezr 5:1). He exhorted the Jews to finish building the second temple (6:14) and headed Iddo’s priestly family during Joiakim’s term as high priest (Neh 12:16). Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah served as both priest and prophet (Zec 1:1, 7; 7:1, 8).<\/li>\n<p>Numerous suggestions have been offered to resolve the discrepancy of Zechariah’s pedigree. In the Ezra and Nehemiah passages, Iddo is listed as his father, whereas in Zechariah, Berechiah is the father. Some conclude that Berechiah and Iddo were different names for the same person, or that Berechiah’s name (Zec 1:1, 7) was a later scribal emendation that confused Jeberechiah’s son with Iddo’s son (cf. Is 8:2). A more plausible theory identifies Iddo as Zechariah’s grandfather, the renowned head of his family, who returned to Jerusalem from exile in 538 <span>BC<\/span>. Either by Berechiah’s early death or by the precedence of his grandfather’s name, Zechariah was considered Iddo’s successor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>21. Parosh’s descendant and the head of his father’s household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:3).<\/li>\n<li>22. Bebai’s son and the head of a household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:11).<\/li>\n<li>23. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo, the man in charge at Casiphia, to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>24. One of the six descendants of Elam who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>\n<li>25. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>26. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Athaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>27. Descendant of Shelah and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Maaseiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:5).<\/li>\n<li>28. Priest, descendant of Malkijah and an ancestor of a family of priests headed by Adaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. Jonathan’s son, a descendant of Asaph. He led a group of the priestly musicians who played trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>30. Priest who played a trumpet at the Jerusalem wall’s dedication (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>31. Jeberechiah’s son and undoubtedly a man of distinction who, along with Uriah the priest, publicly witnessed Isaiah’s writing of the puzzling expression “Maher-shalal-hash-baz,” which later prophetically revealed God’s intended judgment on Damascus and Samaria (Is 8:2).<\/li>\n<li>32. John the Baptist’s father, priest of Abijah’s division, and the husband of Elizabeth, a woman of priestly descent. His story is recounted in Luke 1. They lived in the Judean hill country during King Herod the Great’s reign (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>; Lk 1:5). Zechariah and Elizabeth both lived righteous and pious lives; however, they were advanced in years and still had no children.<\/li>\n<p>As priest, Zechariah was one of the men chosen to represent his division in its yearly appointed session of service in the Jerusalem temple (the priests of Israel were divided into 24 orders, each being assigned an annual two-week period of service in the temple). One day while serving in Jerusalem, Zechariah was selected by lot to burn incense in the temple’s Holy Place, a privilege granted to a priest only once in his lifetime. While performing this temple duty, the angel Gabriel appeared to him, telling him that Elizabeth his wife, though barren, would bear him a son, whose name would be called John and who would prepare the way for the Messiah. As a sign confirming the angel’s report, Zechariah was made mute for his disbelief that, in their old age, he and Elizabeth would produce a child. When Zechariah returned to the temple court, the gathered multitude perceived that the gesturing priest had seen a vision.<\/p>\n<p>Elizabeth became pregnant as promised and in her sixth month was visited by her relative Mary, who was also with child. Later, shortly after the baby’s birth, Zechariah affirmed that his son’s name would be John, at which time his speech was restored and he was filled with the Holy Spirit, prophesying and praising God for the work that he was about to do in Israel.<\/p>\n<li>33. Original name proposed for John the Baptist after his father’s name (Lk 1:59). <em>See<\/em> John the Baptist.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZECHARIAH (Person) Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.” 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 BC, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 BC), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generat...","summary_en":"ZECHARIAH (Person) Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.” 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 BC, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 BC), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generat...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48202,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","summary_en":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75828,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","summary_en":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103454,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","summary_en":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131080,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:4","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:4<\/strong> These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","summary_en":"8:4 These thirteen people were apparently community leaders. Some might have helped Ezra roll the scroll as he read.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":48203,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","summary_en":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75829,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","summary_en":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103455,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","summary_en":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131081,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:5","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:5<\/strong> The people <em>all rose to their feet<\/em> out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","summary_en":"8:5 The people all rose to their feet out of respect for God’s word (Job 29:8). Apparently, they stood the whole time Ezra was reading.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":48204,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","summary_en":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75830,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","summary_en":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103456,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","summary_en":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131082,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:6","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:6<\/strong> <em>Ezra praised the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • <em>Amen!<\/em> A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","summary_en":"8:6 Ezra praised the Lord: See also 1:5; 9:32; Deut 10:17; Jer 32:18; Dan 9:4. • Amen! A statement of agreement (see Neh 5:13). Lifting hands (Ps 28:2) and bowing in humble worship were signs of reverence for God and submission to his word.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":1022,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Akkub","title_en":"Akkub","content_ro":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AKKUB<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:45).<\/li>\n<li>5. Ezra’s assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>6. Descendant of #2 above and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 11:19; 12:25-26). He is perhaps the same as #5 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","summary_en":"AKKUB 1. One of Elioenai’s seven sons and a distant descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Ancestor of a family of Levite gatekeepers who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:42; Neh 7:45). This family name was borne by two of his descendants (#3 and #6 below). 3. Descendant of #2 and head of a family of Levite gatekeepers who were among the first to return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chr 9:17). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to J...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3290,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azariah","title_en":"Azariah","content_ro":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZARIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements:<\/p>\n<li> 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer over the 12 regional administrators (1 Kgs 4:5).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Amaziah’s son, king of Judah (2 Kgs 14:21; 15:1-7), more frequently known as Uzziah. <em>See<\/em> Uzziah #1.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ethan’s son, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Jehu’s son, another descendant of Judah (1 Chr 2:38).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ahimaaz’s son and Zadok’s grandson (1 Chr 6:9). If Azariah #1 was indeed a high priest, this Azariah could be identified with him.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Johanan’s son and Amariah’s father (1 Chr 6:10-11). He is identical with the Azariah of Ezra 7:3 and 2 Esdras 1:2, whose father (meaning “ancestor”) was Meraioth. The parenthetical note about Solomon’s temple (1 Chr 6:10) is generally held to go with the Azariah of verse 9 (see #6 above). It is possible, however, that this Azariah served in the temple (built by Solomon) during the reign of Uzziah and is therefore identical with #17 below.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Hilkiah’s son and Seriah’s father (1 Chr 6:13-14; Ezr 7:1; 2 Esd 1:1). Some have identified this Azariah with #10 or #11 below.<\/li>\n<li> 9. Zephaniah’s son, an ancestor of the singer Heman. Heman sang in the worship ritual instituted by King David (1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li>10. Hilkiah’s son or descendant, one of the first priests to settle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:11; “Seraiah,” Neh 11:11).<\/li>\n<li>11. Oded’s son, a prophet in the days of King Asa of Judah. He encouraged Asa to initiate badly needed reforms in the king’s 15th year (2 Chr 15:1-15).<\/li>\n<li>12, 13. Two sons of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. Along with four of their brothers, they were killed for political reasons by Jehoram, heir to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>14. Alternate name of Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Chr 22:6, <span>kjv<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Ahaziah #2.<\/li>\n<li>15. Jehoram’s son, one of Judah’s military commanders. This Azariah followed Jehoiada the priest in a rebellion that resulted in the execution of Queen Athaliah and the crowning of Joash as king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>16. Obed’s son, another of the five commanders in league with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. High priest in Jerusalem during the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chr 26:16-21). He opposed Uzziah’s arrogant attempt to burn incense on the altar. Perhaps the same as #7 above.<\/li>\n<li>18. Johanan’s son, a leader of Ephraim’s tribe. Azariah and other leaders of the tribe joined the prophet Obed in protesting the capture of Judean prisoners by King Pekah of Israel and in effecting their release (2 Chr 28:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. Descendant of Kohath and the father of a Levite named Joel. Joel participated in the temple cleansing instituted by King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>20. Jehallelel’s son. This Azariah, a descendant of Merari, also participated in Hezekiah’s cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>21. Zadok’s descendant and high priest during the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 31:10, 13). He participated in Hezekiah’s massive religious reforms.<\/li>\n<li>22. Maaseiah’s son, a householder in Jerusalem who participated in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>23. Leader who returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile (Neh 7:7; “Seraiah,” Ezr 2:2).<\/li>\n<li>24. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>25. Priest who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:2).<\/li>\n<li>26. Participant in the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh 12:33).<\/li>\n<li>27. Alternate form of Jaazaniah, the name of Hoshaiah’s son, in Jeremiah 42:1 and 43:2. <em>See<\/em> Jaazaniah #1.<\/li>\n<li>28. One of the three young Jews taken into captivity with Daniel. In Babylon he was renamed Abednego (Dn 1:6-7, 11, 19; 2:17). <em>See<\/em> Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","summary_en":"AZARIAH Very common Jewish name. Its numerous occurrences in the priestly genealogies has caused much confusion. The following is one of several possible arrangements: 1. Zadok’s son or grandson. According to most translations, Azariah was high priest during Solomon’s reign (1 Kgs 4:2). It is possible, however, that his position should be understood as that of a special counselor or keeper of the royal calendar. 2. Nathan’s son, a high official in King Solomon’s court. He was chief officer ov...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3595,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bani","title_en":"Bani","content_ro":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANI<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:10), alternately spelled Binnui in Nehemiah 7:15.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:10; 1 Esd 8:36). Possibly the same as #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Ancestor of some Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Ancestor of another group of Israelites who were found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:34).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son (descendant) of Bani (#7 above). This Bani was among those found guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezr 10:38, <span>kjv<\/span>). Because Bani is spelled almost the same as “sons of” in Hebrew, most modern translations render verse 38 “of the sons of Binnui.”<\/li>\n<li> 9. Rehum’s father and a Levite. Rehum repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall after the exile (Neh 3:17).<\/li>\n<li>10. Levitical assistant of Ezra who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). He was among those who offered praises to God on the steps of the temple (Neh 9:4-5). He is probably the same as Binnui (Ezr 10:38) and Anniuth (1 Esd 9:48).<\/li>\n<li>11. Another Levitical assistant who explained passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 9:4b).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God after the exile (Neh 10:13). He was a leader of the people representing the Bani family mentioned under #4 above.<\/li>\n<li>13. Uzzi’s father. Uzzi was the head of the Levites in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh 11:22). Possibly the same as #9 or #10 above.<\/li>\n<p>The popularity of this name and its similarity to other Jewish names (e.g., Binnui) has caused much confusion in the genealogical lists. The list above is one of several possible arrangements.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","summary_en":"BANI 1. Member of Gad’s tribe and warrior among David’s mighty men who were known as “the thirty” (2 Sm 23:36). 2. Shemer’s son and ancestor of Ethan. Ethan was the Levite of Merari’s line in charge of the music in the tabernacle during King David’s reign (1 Chr 6:46). 3. Member of Judah’s tribe and ancestor of Uthai (1 Chr 9:4). Uthai was one of the first to settle again in Jerusalem after the exile. Possibly the same as #4 below. 4. Ancestor of a family that returned to Judah with Zerubbabe...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15197,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanan","title_en":"Hanan","content_ro":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANAN<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:10).<\/li>\n<li> 7, 8. Two political leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Neh 10:22, 26).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites whom Nehemiah appointed as treasurer over the storehouses (Neh 13:13).<\/li>\n<li>10. Igdaliah’s son and head of a prophetic guild occupying the room in the temple where Jeremiah offered the Rechabites wine to drink (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","summary_en":"HANAN 1. Shashak’s son and one of the chief men of Benjamin (1 Chr 8:23). 2. Azel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:38; 9:44). 3. Warrior among David’s mighty men, who were known as “the thirty” (1 Chr 11:43). 4. Ancestor of a group of temple assistants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezr 2:46; Neh 7:49). 5. Levitical assistant who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7). 6. Levite who signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God wit...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16508,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hodiah, Hodijah*","title_en":"Hodiah, Hodijah*","content_ro":"<h3>HODIAH, HODIJAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A man of Judah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:19.<\/li>\n<li>2, 3, 4. Three of the men who signed the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:10, 13, 18) bear this name; two of them are perhaps among those who interpreted the covenant to the people at Ezra’s public reading of the law (8:7) and stood upon the stairs of the Levites during the service of covenant renewal (9:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HODIAH, HODIJAH*<\/h3>\n<li>1. A man of Judah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:19.<\/li>\n<li>2, 3, 4. Three of the men who signed the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:10, 13, 18) bear this name; two of them are perhaps among those who interpreted the covenant to the people at Ezra’s public reading of the law (8:7) and stood upon the stairs of the Levites during the service of covenant renewal (9:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HODIAH, HODIJAH* 1. A man of Judah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:19. 2, 3, 4. Three of the men who signed the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:10, 13, 18) bear this name; two of them are perhaps among those who interpreted the covenant to the people at Ezra’s public reading of the law (8:7) and stood upon the stairs of the Levites during the service of covenant renewal (9:5).","summary_en":"HODIAH, HODIJAH* 1. A man of Judah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:19. 2, 3, 4. Three of the men who signed the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:10, 13, 18) bear this name; two of them are perhaps among those who interpreted the covenant to the people at Ezra’s public reading of the law (8:7) and stood upon the stairs of the Levites during the service of covenant renewal (9:5).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18485,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jamin","title_en":"Jamin","content_ro":"<h3>JAMIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeon’s son (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15; 1 Chr 4:24) and founder of the Jaminite family (Nm 26:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ram’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the men (perhaps a Levite) who taught and explained the law to the people following Ezra’s public reading (Neh 8:7).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JAMIN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeon’s son (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15; 1 Chr 4:24) and founder of the Jaminite family (Nm 26:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. Ram’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:27).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the men (perhaps a Levite) who taught and explained the law to the people following Ezra’s public reading (Neh 8:7).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JAMIN 1. Simeon’s son (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15; 1 Chr 4:24) and founder of the Jaminite family (Nm 26:12). 2. Ram’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:27). 3. One of the men (perhaps a Levite) who taught and explained the law to the people following Ezra’s public reading (Neh 8:7).","summary_en":"JAMIN 1. Simeon’s son (Gn 46:10; Ex 6:15; 1 Chr 4:24) and founder of the Jaminite family (Nm 26:12). 2. Ram’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 2:27). 3. One of the men (perhaps a Levite) who taught and explained the law to the people following Ezra’s public reading (Neh 8:7).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19353,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20948,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jozabad","title_en":"Jozabad","content_ro":"<h3>JOZABAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Benjamite from Gederah and one of the military men who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4).<\/li>\n<li>2, 3. Leaders and mighty warriors from Manasseh’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag to fight against Saul (1 Chr 12:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the Levites who assisted with the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Levitical chiefs who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite, the son of Jeshua, and one who helped Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah take inventory of the temple’s gifts and precious metals during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest and one of the six sons of Pashhur who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites who assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law during the postexilic period (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levites who relocated to Jerusalem and was put in charge of the work of the temple during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. Alternate rendering for Shimeath’s son in 2 Kings 12:21. <em>See<\/em> Jozacar, Jozachar.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOZABAD<\/h3>\n<li>1. Benjamite from Gederah and one of the military men who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4).<\/li>\n<li>2, 3. Leaders and mighty warriors from Manasseh’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag to fight against Saul (1 Chr 12:20).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the Levites who assisted with the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Levitical chiefs who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Levite, the son of Jeshua, and one who helped Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah take inventory of the temple’s gifts and precious metals during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest and one of the six sons of Pashhur who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:22).<\/li>\n<li> 8. One of the Levites who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:23).<\/li>\n<li> 9. One of the Levites who assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law during the postexilic period (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levites who relocated to Jerusalem and was put in charge of the work of the temple during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. Alternate rendering for Shimeath’s son in 2 Kings 12:21. <em>See<\/em> Jozacar, Jozachar.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOZABAD 1. Benjamite from Gederah and one of the military men who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4). 2, 3. Leaders and mighty warriors from Manasseh’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag to fight against Saul (1 Chr 12:20). 4. One of the Levites who assisted with the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13). 5. One of the Levitical chiefs who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast dur...","summary_en":"JOZABAD 1. Benjamite from Gederah and one of the military men who came to David’s support at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4). 2, 3. Leaders and mighty warriors from Manasseh’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag to fight against Saul (1 Chr 12:20). 4. One of the Levites who assisted with the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13). 5. One of the Levitical chiefs who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast dur...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21567,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kelaiah","title_en":"Kelaiah","content_ro":"<h3>KELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>A Levite who was guilty of marrying a pagan wife (Ezr 10:18). According to verse 23 Kelaiah is also called Kelita. A Levite named Kelita is also found in Nehemiah 8:7, 10:10, and 1 Esdras 9:48, where he is one who helped Ezra in expounding the law and who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant. It cannot be determined with certainty whether Kelaiah and Kelita are the same individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KELAIAH<\/h3>\n<p>A Levite who was guilty of marrying a pagan wife (Ezr 10:18). According to verse 23 Kelaiah is also called Kelita. A Levite named Kelita is also found in Nehemiah 8:7, 10:10, and 1 Esdras 9:48, where he is one who helped Ezra in expounding the law and who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant. It cannot be determined with certainty whether Kelaiah and Kelita are the same individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KELAIAH A Levite who was guilty of marrying a pagan wife (Ezr 10:18). According to verse 23 Kelaiah is also called Kelita. A Levite named Kelita is also found in Nehemiah 8:7, 10:10, and 1 Esdras 9:48, where he is one who helped Ezra in expounding the law and who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant. It cannot be determined with certainty whether Kelaiah and Kelita are the same individual.","summary_en":"KELAIAH A Levite who was guilty of marrying a pagan wife (Ezr 10:18). According to verse 23 Kelaiah is also called Kelita. A Levite named Kelita is also found in Nehemiah 8:7, 10:10, and 1 Esdras 9:48, where he is one who helped Ezra in expounding the law and who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant. It cannot be determined with certainty whether Kelaiah and Kelita are the same individual.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23767,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maaseiah","title_en":"Maaseiah","content_ro":"<h3>MAASEIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to assist in repairing the temple (2 Chr 34:8).<\/li>\n<li> 6–8. Three priests who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18-22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pahath-moab’s son (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Azariah, a repairman of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ezra’s attendant when he read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who, with others, helped the people to understand the law Ezra read (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>13. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant under Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>14. Judahite leader and the son of Baruch, who lived in Jerusalem with those chosen by lot to inherit the rebuilt city (Neh 11:5). He is sometimes identified with the Asaiah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>\n<li>15. Ithiel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe who was chosen to live in Jerusalem (Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priestly trumpeter at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>17. Priestly singer at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>18. Father of Zephaniah the priest. Zephaniah, with Pashhur, was sent to Jeremiah by King Zedekiah to inquire of the Lord concerning the future of Nebuchadnezzar’s war against Jerusalem (Jer 21:1-2; 29:25) and to request that Jeremiah pray for Jerusalem (37:3).<\/li>\n<li>19. Father of Zedekiah the false prophet, an opponent of Jeremiah’s prophecy about Jerusalem’s fall under Nebuchadnezzar’s siege (Jer 29:21).<\/li>\n<li>20. KJV form of Mahseiah, Baruch’s forefather, in Jeremiah 32:12 and 51:59. <em>See<\/em> Mahseiah.<\/li>\n<li>21. Keeper of the threshold during Jehoiakim’s reign (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MAASEIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to assist in repairing the temple (2 Chr 34:8).<\/li>\n<li> 6–8. Three priests who obeyed Ezra’s exhortation to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18-22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pahath-moab’s son (Ezr 10:30).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Azariah, a repairman of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:23).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ezra’s attendant when he read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>12. Levite who, with others, helped the people to understand the law Ezra read (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>13. Leader who set his seal on Ezra’s covenant under Nehemiah’s leadership (Neh 10:25).<\/li>\n<li>14. Judahite leader and the son of Baruch, who lived in Jerusalem with those chosen by lot to inherit the rebuilt city (Neh 11:5). He is sometimes identified with the Asaiah mentioned in 1 Chronicles 9:5.<\/li>\n<li>15. Ithiel’s son from Benjamin’s tribe who was chosen to live in Jerusalem (Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priestly trumpeter at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>17. Priestly singer at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:42).<\/li>\n<li>18. Father of Zephaniah the priest. Zephaniah, with Pashhur, was sent to Jeremiah by King Zedekiah to inquire of the Lord concerning the future of Nebuchadnezzar’s war against Jerusalem (Jer 21:1-2; 29:25) and to request that Jeremiah pray for Jerusalem (37:3).<\/li>\n<li>19. Father of Zedekiah the false prophet, an opponent of Jeremiah’s prophecy about Jerusalem’s fall under Nebuchadnezzar’s siege (Jer 29:21).<\/li>\n<li>20. KJV form of Mahseiah, Baruch’s forefather, in Jeremiah 32:12 and 51:59. <em>See<\/em> Mahseiah.<\/li>\n<li>21. Keeper of the threshold during Jehoiakim’s reign (Jer 35:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MAASEIAH 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20). 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1). 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7). 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to ass...","summary_en":"MAASEIAH 1. One of the singers appointed by the Levites to accompany David when he brought the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18-20). 2. Commander who agreed to assist Jehoiada the priest in crowning Joash king (2 Chr 23:1). 3. Officer who served King Uzziah by assisting in the organization of the king’s army (2 Chr 26:11). 4. Son of Judah’s royal house who was slain when Pekah the king of Israel invaded Judah (2 Chr 28:7). 5. Ruler in Jerusalem whom Josiah appointed to ass...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29437,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pelaiah","title_en":"Pelaiah","content_ro":"<h3>PELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Elioenai’s son and a remote descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite who helped Ezra explain (or translate) the Law to the people after it was read to them (Neh 8:7; 10:10).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PELAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Elioenai’s son and a remote descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite who helped Ezra explain (or translate) the Law to the people after it was read to them (Neh 8:7; 10:10).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PELAIAH 1. Elioenai’s son and a remote descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Levite who helped Ezra explain (or translate) the Law to the people after it was read to them (Neh 8:7; 10:10).","summary_en":"PELAIAH 1. Elioenai’s son and a remote descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Levite who helped Ezra explain (or translate) the Law to the people after it was read to them (Neh 8:7; 10:10).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31365,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Priests and Levites","title_en":"Priests and Levites","content_ro":"<h3>PRIESTS AND LEVITES<\/h3>\n<p>Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levites fulfilled a variety of essentially religious duties and were equivalent approximately to the clergy in modern times. They were professional men and were supported for their full-time religious work.<\/p>\n<p>The role of the priesthood may be seen most clearly in the context of Israelite religion as a whole. At the heart of religion was a relationship with God; to be an Israelite or a Jew was to know and maintain a continuous relationship with the living God. This relationship found its outward expression in a variety of contexts: the covenant, the temple, worship, and every facet of daily life. Thus religion, understood as a relationship, had two perspectives: the relationship with God and that with fellow human beings. It had both a personal and a communal dimension to it. The priests were the guardians and servants of this life of relationship, which was at the heart of OT religion; all their functions can best be understood within the context of a relationship between God and Israel. The prophets, too, were servants of the covenant relationship. While the priests functioned as the normal servants of religion, the prophets’ role was more that of calling a delinquent people back to the relationship with God in times of crisis.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, there are frequent references to both priests and Levites; in a number of biblical texts, however, the distinction is not clear (see, e.g., Dt 18:1-8). From the scholarly point of view, the precise relationship between priests and Levites is a continuing problem that has not yet been fully resolved. In general terms, only the sons of Aaron were to assume the role of priests; all other Levites would have religious functions, though technically they would not be priests. While this distinction is clear in most biblical texts, in others there is lack of certainty and clarity. It is clear, however, that <em>priests<\/em> (Levites descended from Aaron) and <em>Levites<\/em> (other than the descendants of Aaron) all had professional religious duties to perform. The precise nature of those duties varied from time to time in the course of Israel’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>• The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>• The Priests<\/p>\n<p>• The Levites<\/p>\n<p>• The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOriginsofthePriesthood\">The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood in Israel began during the time of Moses and Aaron. The exodus from Egypt was not only the liberation of a group of Hebrew slaves but also the birth of the nation of Israel. The nation that was born in the exodus was given its constitution in the covenant of Sinai. The law of this covenant established the foundations and origins of Israelite priesthood. It provides insight into the three basic categories to be considered: the high priest, the priests, and the Levites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHighPriest\">The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>Any large and complex organization requires a head or leader, and this was true also of the Hebrew priesthood (though in its early days it was a small organization). The covenant was established through Moses, the prophet, through whom God gave the offer and substance of the covenant relationship; religious life within the covenant was to be the primary responsibility of Aaron, who was the first and chief priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of Israel’s priesthood, it is probable that the high priest’s office was relatively informal; he was chief or leader among his fellow priests. The office was significant, nevertheless, and involved a special ritual of investiture, special clothing, and certain special responsibilities. While the high priest’s duties were similar in principle to those of other priests, he had certain exclusive responsibilities. To some extent, his duties were administrative, pertaining to all the priests of whom he had charge. But his position was more weighty than that of an administrator; just as all priests were the servants and guardians of the covenant relationship, so the high priest was chief servant and chief guardian. In his hands rested spiritual responsibility for the entire people of God, and therein lay the true honor and gravity of his position.<\/p>\n\n<p>This spiritual seniority of the high priest is seen most clearly in certain tasks he undertook within Israel’s life of worship. The clearest example may be seen in the annual observation of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). On that day alone, the high priest entered the Holy of Holies and, standing before the “mercy seat,” he sought God’s forgiveness and mercy for the whole nation of Israel (Lv 16:1-19). It is in that ceremony that Israel’s covenant faith is seen most clearly. Israel’s religion was one of relationship with a holy God, and human evil disrupted that relationship. While all worship and sacrifices throughout the year were concerned with the continuation of the relationship, the Day of Atonement was the most solemn day of the year, in which the attention of all the people focused upon the meaning of their existence. Life held meaning only if the relationship with God could be maintained; the high priest had the great honor and heavy burden of seeking God’s mercy for all Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The special clothing worn by the high priest was symbolic of the nature and importance of his office; although all the symbolism cannot be determined, some of it is made clear in the biblical text. There are three particular themes in the symbolism. The first is beauty. The sense of beauty emerges from the quality and design of all the items of clothing, together with the use of color and precious stones. But beauty is dominant in the breastplate; the Hebrew word translated approximately as “breastplate” has as its basic sense “beauty” or “excellence.” The clothing symbolizes beauty, while beauty describes the office; the two other themes associated with the symbolism bring out the excellence of the office.<\/p>\n<p>The second theme is the role of the priest as representative of Israel before God. This essential dimension of the office of the high priest is explicitly identified in the names of the tribes of Israel in the two onyx stones in the ephod, and in the 12 precious stones attached to the breastplate. The high priest entered God’s presence to seek deliverance from God’s judgment (the breastplate is identified with judgment; Ex 28:15) for his people and in order to keep the people constantly in God’s remembrance (v 12), as symbolized by the two onyx stones. The third theme is the role of high priest as the representative of God to Israel. This dimension of the office is seen in the Urim and Thummim, kept in the breastpiece, by means of which God made known his will to Israel. The high priest, Aaron, fully robed, was a splendid figure, and the splendor of his garments indicated the magnificence of the office with which he had been entrusted.<\/p>\n<p>The high priesthood was to be passed on within the family (for the high priest was expected to be a married man), although in later history the practice was not always adhered to. On Aaron’s death, the office passed to Eleazar, one of his four sons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriests\">The Priests<\/p>\n<p>Priests took office not as the result of a particular vocation but by virtue of priestly descent. Thus the first priests were the four sons of Aaron: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These four were ordained at the same time that Aaron was ordained high priest (Ex 28:1). Like him, they had special clothing, which was basically similar, though it lacked the distinctive garments of the high priest (the special ephod, the breastpiece, and the crown). The priesthood would be passed down through their sons.<\/p>\n<p>The sanctity of the priestly office was such that it was preserved from degeneration through specific laws. A man must be a descendant of Aaron to be a priest, but he was also required to meet a variety of other qualifications. He would not marry a divorcée or a former prostitute (Lv 21:7). If he was afflicted by certain kinds of disease or congenital defects, he was barred from priestly office (e.g., blindness, lameness, mutilation, being a hunchback or dwarf; vv 16-23). The principle involved was similar to that applying to animals used in sacrifice—only those free from defect or blemish were suitable for divine service.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of the priesthood there is some information provided in the biblical text concerning the specific duties of the priests. Eleazar had overall responsibility for the tabernacle and its offerings (Nm 4:16); assisted Moses in a number of duties, such as numbering the people and dividing the land (26:1-2; 32:2); and later served as an adviser to Joshua. Ithamar was responsible for the construction of the tabernacle (Ex 38:21) and supervised the families of the Gershonites and Merarites (Nm 4:28-33). Nadab and Abihu, however, died soon after their ordination as a result of a sinful act in their priestly duties (Lv 10:1-7), which may have been related in part to drunkenness (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Priestly duties, in general, fell into three areas (Dt 33:8-10). First, priests were responsible, in conjunction with the high priest, for declaring God’s will to the people. Second, they had responsibilities in religious education; they were to teach to Israel God’s ordinances and law (v 10). Third, they were to be the servants of the tabernacle, participating in Israel’s sacrifices and worship. There were a number of other duties that may have fallen to them, which they would have shared with the Levites in general.<\/p>\n<p>The priests, along with all other Levites, did not own any land, as did the other Israelite tribes. Their task was to be entirely in the direct service to God. The absence of land, however, meant that they could not support and feed themselves as could other men and women. Consequently, the law specified that they could be supported for their services by the people as a whole. They were to receive, from worshipers, portions of animals that were brought to the tabernacle, as well as corn, wine, oil, and wool.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLevites\">The Levites<\/p>\n<p>This term includes the priests, in a broad sense, for the sons of Aaron belonged to the tribe of Levi. For practical purposes, however, the Levites were those of the tribe other than the priests. The Levites also functioned in the service of the tabernacle, though they had a subordinate position. They, too, were professional men and were paid in money and in kind for their services. Though they did not inherit tribal territory of their own, there were a number of cities set aside for their use (Nm 35:1-8), and pasturelands were designated outside those cities for their livestock.<\/p>\n<p>The Levites were divided into three principal families, the descendants of Kohath, Gershon, and Merari (Nm 4). Each of these families had particular responsibilities with respect to the care and transport of the tabernacle. The sons of Kohath carried the tabernacle furniture (after it had been covered by the priests), the sons of Gershon cared for the coverings and screens, and the sons of Merari carried and erected the tabernacle’s frame. The priests, by contrast, were responsible for the transportation of the ark of the covenant. The role of each Levite, as servant of the tabernacle, was restricted; he undertook his professional duties between the ages of 25 and 50 (8:24-26).<\/p>\n<p>Although many of the duties of the Levites were of a mundane nature, they also had a very significant religious role. The law required that all the firstborn, including firstborn sons, be given to God, recalling the slaying of the firstborn at the exodus from Egypt. The Levites’ role in religion was that of being accepted by God in the place of the firstborn sons of Israel (Nm 3:11-13); their cattle, too, were accepted in place of the Israelites’ firstborn cattle. In the census taken in the time of Moses, the firstborn Israelites exceeded the number of the Levites, and a five-shekel redemption fee had to be paid into the priestly coffers for each person in excess (vv 40-51). The representative and substitutionary nature of the Levites can be seen in Israelite religion. Like the priests, they played a part in the larger activity of mediation between God and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The law of Deuteronomy specifies a number of duties that may have fallen upon both priests and Levites (though the texts are ambiguous). These duties included participation in the activity of the law courts as judges, perhaps with special reference to religious crimes (Dt 17:8-9), taking care of the Book of the Law (v 18), controlling the lives and health of lepers (24:8), and participating directly in the conduct of covenant renewal ceremonies (27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHistoryoftheInstitution\">The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>In theory, the covenant law of Moses determined the nature and course of the offices of priests and Levites for the future history of Israel. In practice, however, changing historical circumstances and changes in the shape of Israel’s religion and culture altered the shape of the priesthood and the role of the Levites from time to time. And even more significantly, the persons who held the offices shaped them and their effectiveness through their faithfulness or unfaithfulness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood before the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>In the time of Joshua, the priests continued to undertake their important task of carrying the ark of the covenant. The Levites assisted in the division and allocation of the newly acquired land among the Israelite tribes. In Joshua 21, there is a detailed list of the allocation of cities to both priests and Levites, in fulfillment of the earlier legislation. In the days of the settlement, beyond the Conquest, there is some evidence that the Levites took over the priestly duty of transporting the ark (1 Sm 6:15; 2 Sm 15:24).<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the book of Judges has recorded two stories that illuminate the lives of particular Levites. The first, the story of Micah (Jgs 17–18), describes the establishment of a local shrine in which Micah’s son was appointed as a priest (though he was not of Levite or Aaronic descent). Later, Micah hired an itinerant Levite to function as a priest in his shrine, though subsequently that Levite was persuaded to serve the tribe of Dan as a priest. It is difficult to fit the details of this story into the theoretical model of priests and Levites, though the story may illustrate the confused state of Israel’s religion at the time. What is particularly significant is that the role of the Levite-priest was primarily oracular (18:5-6). The second story in Judges is the rather horrifying account of a Levite and his concubine (ch 19). The story illustrates the moral decline and lack of law and order in Israel at the time, but it sheds little light on the role of the Levites.<\/p>\n<p>More information is provided about the priesthood during the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, immediately before the establishment of the monarchy. The tabernacle (by now probably a semipermanent structure) and the ark of the covenant were located in Shiloh. The priest in charge of the sanctuary in Shiloh was Eli, who may have been a descendant of Aaron’s son Ithamar. His two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, also served as priests, indicating that the principle of family descent was still operative with respect to the priesthood. But although Eli was a faithful priest, his two sons abused the office.<\/p>\n<p>The precise role of Samuel in this period is unclear. He was primarily a judge and a prophet, but it is difficult to determine whether he was also a priest. In the historical narrative, he is not called a priest, though Psalm 99:6 might be interpreted to indicate his priestly office. There are a number of passages, however, that indicate he acted like a priest. For example, he offered sacrifices (1 Sm 7:9-10); as a young man he served in the sanctuary of Shiloh and wore an ephod (ch 2). Furthermore, one of the biblical genealogies implies priestly descent (1 Chr 6:23-30). Nevertheless, he is not normally identified as a priest and the introduction to his story refers to him as an Ephraimite, by descent from his father (1 Sm 1:1), not a Levite. If the priest is perceived as a permanent servant of the sanctuary, as was Eli, then it is clear that Samuel was not a priest. But the priestly role of Samuel may perhaps be related to the fact that his mother “lent” him to God (v 28) while he was still a boy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Time of David and Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>Several radical changes took place during the reign of David and Solomon. These were a result, primarily, of the establishment of a permanent temple in Jerusalem and the installation of the ark of the covenant there. During the time of Saul, the first king of Israel, the social structure was essentially the same as it had been in the time of the judges. Saul, as king, was a military leader, but his relationship to religion and the priesthood was not clearly determined.<\/p>\n<p>David changed the situation in many important respects. After his capture of the city of Jerusalem, he made that place the political and religious capital of his nation. The religious centrality of Jerusalem was assured by moving the ark of the covenant there, together with the tabernacle. Jerusalem now became the permanent location of the ark, and therefore the permanent center of religion; at the same time, the various regional shrines, which had developed in the premonarchical period, were gradually eliminated.<\/p>\n<p>These changes had numerous implications for the priesthood and the Levites. During David’s reign, there were two principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. Abiathar, a former priest of Nob, had joined David before his rise to power; he appears to have been a descendant of Eli, and through him of Ithamar, one of Aaron’s sons. Zadok’s background is less clear, though his lineage appears to go back to Aaron’s other son, Eleazar. These two priests are always named together in the texts describing David’s reign, and Zadok is always mentioned before Abiathar. Although neither is explicitly identified as high priest in the ancient texts, there is some evidence to suggest that Abiathar functioned as high priest (1 Kgs 2:35); in NT times, he is identified as such (Mk 2:26). Zadok, during David’s reign, may have been particularly responsible for the care of the ark of the covenant (2 Sm 15:24-25). These two priests had a significant position in David’s royal establishment; they may also have shared overall responsibility for the priests, whose lives were now centered on the Jerusalem temple.<\/p>\n<p>Much of David’s time was focused upon the preparations for building a permanent temple for God. In the preparation for the temple, and in its completion during the reign of King Solomon, the new activities of the Levites may be seen. (The construction of a permanent temple automatically removed their former responsibilities related to the care and transportation of the tabernacle.) Large numbers of Levites were employed as laborers in the actual building of the temple. Others found new tasks in the worship of God in the tabernacle during David’s reign and in the temple upon its completion. To the Levites, and especially to Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, was given primary responsibility for the music of worship; this involved not only singing but also the playing of a variety of instruments in the temple’s orchestra or band. The Levites had also a variety of other tasks; they worked as gatekeepers at the sanctuary, assisted the priests in the preparation of sacrifices, kept the sanctuary clean, and functioned as general administrative and legal officers (1 Chr 23:1-32). Other Levites functioned as bankers, with primary responsibility for the temple treasuries (26:20-28).<\/p>\n<p>Following David’s death, there was a dispute over the royal succession, from which Solomon emerged as the new king. During his reign, the temple was brought to its completion and the regular worship of the nation was conducted there. In the matter of succession, however, Abiathar had supported a losing candidate, and when Solomon was made king, he lost his important office in the royal court. During Solomon’s reign, the control of the priesthood passed into the hands of Zadok.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Divided Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>The great empire, which had been built by David and maintained by Solomon, collapsed after Solomon’s death. From the ruins, two new and relatively insignificant states emerged. The southern kingdom, Judah, retained Jerusalem as its capital and the temple as its center of worship. The northern kingdom, Israel, located its first capital at Shechem, from where it was later moved to Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>In the southern state of Judah, the priests and Levites continued to function normally within the Jerusalem temple. The office of high priest continued to be passed on by descent within the family of Zadok, who had held office in Solomon’s reign. The continuity of office in this family was to be retained down into the time of the second temple, when the Zadokite succession was interrupted about 171 <span>BC<\/span>. Nevertheless, for all the continuity of religion in Jerusalem, all was not well with religion in Judah, neither during the reign of its first king, Rehoboam, nor during the reigns of his successors. During Rehoboam’s reign, there was a decline in religion and also in the priesthood, when popular forms of religion were introduced as a result of foreign influence (1 Kgs 14:22-24). The history of the southern kingdom was marked by periods of religious decline followed by reform, often as a result of the activities of the prophets. The role of the priesthood was all too rarely one of spiritual leadership, and the priests themselves were often the subject of criticism by the prophets (e.g., Jer 2:8, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom, whose first king was Jeroboam I, inevitably had to introduce some radical changes in religion. Jeroboam could not recognize the temple of Jerusalem, partly because it lay outside his state and partly because it was intimately associated with the royal line of David. Jeroboam established two principal shrines in his kingdom, both of which were to retain importance during the relatively short life of the northern kingdom (200 years). The first was at Bethel, in the southern part of his kingdom near the border of Judah (it was only about 12 miles, or 19.3 kilometers, north of Jerusalem). The second shrine, or sanctuary, was at Dan, in the far northern part of his kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Both these sanctuaries had ancient associations with the Hebrew traditions. Bethel is referred to as early as the time of Abram (Gn 12:8), and the sanctuary at Dan is known from the history of the judges (Jgs 18). There may indeed have been priests and Levites still residing in these two places, descendants of the former servants of the sanctuaries. But Jeroboam established a non-Levitical priesthood to serve in these sanctuaries and in various smaller shrines or “high places,” thereby cutting off the religious tradition of the northern state even more radically from that of Judah. The royal sanctuary at Bethel, so close to the Jerusalem temple, may have been set up in deliberate competition with the Judean sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>The history of the priesthood in the northern kingdom is no more impressive than that of Judah. Many of the prophets, including Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah, condemned the northern sanctuaries and their priests. Hosea was forceful in his condemnation: “As marauders lie in ambush for a man, so do bands of priests; they murder on the road to Shechem, committing shameful crimes” (Hos 6:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Those to whom the spiritual lives of the chosen people had been entrusted only rarely lived up to their responsibilities.<\/p>\n<h5>Priests and Levites during and after the Exile<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom came to its end in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, defeated by the armies of Assyria, but religious life continued in Judah for a while longer. Eventually, the end of the southern state came about 586 <span>BC<\/span>; the defeat of the state by the Babylonians was accompanied by the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Lam 2:20). The Babylonian commander took Seraiah, the high priest, and Zephaniah, his assistant, to Riblah, where, along with other officials, they were executed (2 Kgs 25:18-21). Then a policy of exile was established by the Babylonians; the most important and influential people of Judah were deported to Babylon, while the less significant were allowed to remain, for they were unlikely to cause trouble. Of those exiled from Judah, many may have been priests (Jer 29:1), for they were men of influence. By way of contrast, it seems likely that a much smaller number of Levites was exiled, reflecting perhaps their inferior social position.<\/p>\n<p>In the city of Jerusalem there was little normal religious life during the years of the exile; the altar had been destroyed and was not restored until after the exile. No doubt some kind of activity continued, but it was an impoverished form of religion. Most of the priests were in exile in Babylon, but they could not function, for there was no temple or sanctuary. Ezekiel implies that God himself was the only “sanctuary” for the exiles (Ez 11:16). Not until the return from exile and the restoration of Jerusalem and its temple could the normal functions of priests and Levites resume.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian Empire was defeated, the new Persian conquerors instituted a policy whereby the Hebrew exiles could return to their homeland. Of those returning, 4,289 are designated as priests and members of priestly families, while only 341 were Levites (Ezr 2:36-42); the imbalance probably reflects the imbalance in the number of those exiled initially. Under Joshua (Jeshua), the priest, and Zerubbabel, work began on the restoration. The priests played a significant role in the first year of the return, in the restoration of the altar in Jerusalem, so that sacrifice and worship to God could resume. Once the altar had been restored, the work began on the temple itself in the second year of the return. In this work, both the priests and the Levites were involved, and the laying of new foundations for the temple began. When the foundation had been laid, both priests, in their vestments, and Levites, in their role as singers and musicians, participated in the ceremony of dedication (3:8-13). Again, when the temple had been rebuilt, both priests and Levites participated in the ceremony of dedication (6:16-18). The restoration, however, was concerned with more than buildings; it also involved a moral and religious component. Though priests and Levites helped in this task, they were also affected by it. Many, for example, had married foreign wives (9:1), and thus had to conform to Ezra’s reform laws.<\/p>\n<p>To some extent, the priests and Levites resumed their normal duties in the worship of the postexilic period. The priests were engaged in the conduct of the temple worship. The Levites assisted, as temple servants (Neh 11:3), as treasurers and collectors of tithes (10:37-39), and as instructors or teachers of the law of God (8:7-9). Nevertheless, the history of the priesthood after the exile is not free of blemish. Condemnation of the abuses of the priestly office was delivered by the prophet Malachi (Mal 1:6–2:9). Malachi catalogues a list of priestly evils reminiscent of the evil priests who lived during the time of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest continued after the exile among the descendants of Zadok, being held first by Joshua (Hg 1:1). The different political circumstances, however, changed the nature of the high priestly office. Whereas in the days of the monarchy the high priest was subservient to the king, there was no king, in the proper sense, after the exile. From a political perspective, the Jews were members of a province or colony; for practical purposes, they were a community based upon a common religion. The high priest was no longer subject to the secular authority of a Jewish king, but his religious authority was considerable, and in some ways his functions were similar to those of a king in preexilic times.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood in the Maccabean Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, some changes took place in the priesthood, particularly with respect to the office of high priest, which marked the end of the OT era and set the background for the NT period. Judea, in the second century, was ruled by the Seleucid kings, who had inherited a portion of the massive Greek Empire established by Alexander the Great. The Judean province was controlled internally under the high priesthood, whose authority was received from the Seleucid kings.<\/p>\n<p>For the first three decades of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood remained with the Zadokite line of descent. The high priests were members of the (Zadokite) Oniad family: first, Onias III (198–174 <span>BC<\/span>); then Jason, brother of Onias III (174–171 <span>BC<\/span>). It was in the period of Jason that there began a series of events that would terminate the Zadokite tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Onias III had opposed the Hellenization policy of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), which threatened to undermine the Jewish faith. Antiochus replaced Onias by Jason, who in effect purchased the high priesthood from the Seleucid king. In purchasing the priestly office, Jason had set a dangerous precedent; although he was of Zadokite descent, his act implied that the office could be bought and that descent was not vital. The opponents of Jason, the Tobiads, were able to remove him from office and have their own candidate, Menelaus (who was not a Zadokite), appointed in his place. This act resulted in a civil war between those supporting Jason and those supporting Menelaus, and the war in turn culminated in ruthless repressive measures by Antiochus Epiphanes; there were massacres in Jerusalem, and the temple was desecrated (167 <span>BC<\/span>). The desecration of the temple led to the Maccabean revolt, as a result of which the Jews regained their independence for a short time. Menelaus retained the office of high priest until 161 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Alcimus (161–159 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>There then followed a period during which there was no high priest for seven years. The political climate, however, was such that it became unlikely that the Zadokite line would ever regain the high priesthood, which had been established in the time of King Solomon. The Maccabean Jonathan gained control of Jerusalem, and in 152 <span>BC<\/span>, with the approval of the Seleucid king, he was formally invested with the high priest’s robes of office. He was succeeded as high priest and ruler by his brother Simon in 143 <span>BC<\/span>, who also held the office with the approval of the Seleucids (Demetrius II). But in the third year of his reign (140 <span>BC<\/span>), the high priesthood of Simon received public approval in a great religious assembly, and the family of Simon became “high priest forever” (1 Macc 14:41-47). That event marked the real termination of the Zadokite tradition and the foundation of the Hasmonean line.<\/p>\n<p>The establishment of the high priestly office outside the Zadokite line did not go without challenge. It is probable that a sect within Judaism, now known as the Essenes, was born in reaction to the high priesthood of Simon. The Essenes (better known for the Dead Sea Scrolls) appear to have been founded by a Zadokite priest who rejected the authenticity and authority of Simon. Thus, in a limited sense, the Zadokite priests continued to survive.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriesthoodinNewTestamentTimes\">The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>In the early NT period, both priests and Levites continued to function within the Jewish religion. Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, was a priest belonging to the division of Abijah (Lk 1:5), and his wife was also of priestly descent. When Zechariah was visited by an angel, he was engaged at the time in priestly duties in the Jerusalem temple—various divisions of priests took responsibility for the temple services for a period of time and then returned to their homes (v 23), as another division took over. The distinction between priests and Levites is also maintained in the NT (Jn 1:19) and appears in Jesus’ parable concerning the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:31-32). Both priests and Levites were among the earliest converts to Christianity; Barnabas was a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36), and several priests responded to the proclamation of the gospel (6:7).<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest is frequently referred to in the NT. Several high priests are named, the plurality of current and former holders of the office reflecting the nature of the position as an essentially political appointment (as distinct from its oldest definition, that of an office passing from father to son on the death of the father). The two most significant high priests in the NT are those who held office during the lifetime of Jesus. Annas was high priest about <span>AD<\/span> 6 to 15, but even after he ceased to hold the office formally, he continued to exert considerable influence through his son-in-law, the high priest Caiaphas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 18–36). Both were significant figures in the trial of Jesus. At a later date, Ananias, son of Nedebaeus, was high priest (c. <span>AD<\/span> 47–58) and president of the Sanhedrin during the time in which Paul was brought to trial.<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood held considerable authority in NT times. Most internal and religious matters in the Roman province of Judea were within the authority of the Sanhedrin, which functioned as a kind of provincial government, though its powers were limited in certain matters by Rome. Its membership included the ruling and former high priests and a large number of Sadducees, many of whom belonged to influential priestly families. This priestly influence in the Sanhedrin was indicative of the important role of the temple in Jewish life during the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 70, following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, a radical change came about in the significance of the priesthood in Judaism. The end of the temple removed in effect the purpose for the existence of the priesthood. Although the priesthood continued after a fashion until the Bar-Kochba rebellion in <span>AD<\/span> 135, its days were numbered after <span>AD<\/span> 70. Since the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Judaism has developed without priests, and its course down to the present century has been charted by the rabbis, the spiritual descendants of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priesthood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIESTS AND LEVITES<\/h3>\n<p>Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levites fulfilled a variety of essentially religious duties and were equivalent approximately to the clergy in modern times. They were professional men and were supported for their full-time religious work.<\/p>\n<p>The role of the priesthood may be seen most clearly in the context of Israelite religion as a whole. At the heart of religion was a relationship with God; to be an Israelite or a Jew was to know and maintain a continuous relationship with the living God. This relationship found its outward expression in a variety of contexts: the covenant, the temple, worship, and every facet of daily life. Thus religion, understood as a relationship, had two perspectives: the relationship with God and that with fellow human beings. It had both a personal and a communal dimension to it. The priests were the guardians and servants of this life of relationship, which was at the heart of OT religion; all their functions can best be understood within the context of a relationship between God and Israel. The prophets, too, were servants of the covenant relationship. While the priests functioned as the normal servants of religion, the prophets’ role was more that of calling a delinquent people back to the relationship with God in times of crisis.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, there are frequent references to both priests and Levites; in a number of biblical texts, however, the distinction is not clear (see, e.g., Dt 18:1-8). From the scholarly point of view, the precise relationship between priests and Levites is a continuing problem that has not yet been fully resolved. In general terms, only the sons of Aaron were to assume the role of priests; all other Levites would have religious functions, though technically they would not be priests. While this distinction is clear in most biblical texts, in others there is lack of certainty and clarity. It is clear, however, that <em>priests<\/em> (Levites descended from Aaron) and <em>Levites<\/em> (other than the descendants of Aaron) all had professional religious duties to perform. The precise nature of those duties varied from time to time in the course of Israel’s history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>• The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>• The Priests<\/p>\n<p>• The Levites<\/p>\n<p>• The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOriginsofthePriesthood\">The Origins of the Priesthood<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood in Israel began during the time of Moses and Aaron. The exodus from Egypt was not only the liberation of a group of Hebrew slaves but also the birth of the nation of Israel. The nation that was born in the exodus was given its constitution in the covenant of Sinai. The law of this covenant established the foundations and origins of Israelite priesthood. It provides insight into the three basic categories to be considered: the high priest, the priests, and the Levites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHighPriest\">The High Priest<\/p>\n<p>Any large and complex organization requires a head or leader, and this was true also of the Hebrew priesthood (though in its early days it was a small organization). The covenant was established through Moses, the prophet, through whom God gave the offer and substance of the covenant relationship; religious life within the covenant was to be the primary responsibility of Aaron, who was the first and chief priest.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of Israel’s priesthood, it is probable that the high priest’s office was relatively informal; he was chief or leader among his fellow priests. The office was significant, nevertheless, and involved a special ritual of investiture, special clothing, and certain special responsibilities. While the high priest’s duties were similar in principle to those of other priests, he had certain exclusive responsibilities. To some extent, his duties were administrative, pertaining to all the priests of whom he had charge. But his position was more weighty than that of an administrator; just as all priests were the servants and guardians of the covenant relationship, so the high priest was chief servant and chief guardian. In his hands rested spiritual responsibility for the entire people of God, and therein lay the true honor and gravity of his position.<\/p>\n\n<p>This spiritual seniority of the high priest is seen most clearly in certain tasks he undertook within Israel’s life of worship. The clearest example may be seen in the annual observation of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). On that day alone, the high priest entered the Holy of Holies and, standing before the “mercy seat,” he sought God’s forgiveness and mercy for the whole nation of Israel (Lv 16:1-19). It is in that ceremony that Israel’s covenant faith is seen most clearly. Israel’s religion was one of relationship with a holy God, and human evil disrupted that relationship. While all worship and sacrifices throughout the year were concerned with the continuation of the relationship, the Day of Atonement was the most solemn day of the year, in which the attention of all the people focused upon the meaning of their existence. Life held meaning only if the relationship with God could be maintained; the high priest had the great honor and heavy burden of seeking God’s mercy for all Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The special clothing worn by the high priest was symbolic of the nature and importance of his office; although all the symbolism cannot be determined, some of it is made clear in the biblical text. There are three particular themes in the symbolism. The first is beauty. The sense of beauty emerges from the quality and design of all the items of clothing, together with the use of color and precious stones. But beauty is dominant in the breastplate; the Hebrew word translated approximately as “breastplate” has as its basic sense “beauty” or “excellence.” The clothing symbolizes beauty, while beauty describes the office; the two other themes associated with the symbolism bring out the excellence of the office.<\/p>\n<p>The second theme is the role of the priest as representative of Israel before God. This essential dimension of the office of the high priest is explicitly identified in the names of the tribes of Israel in the two onyx stones in the ephod, and in the 12 precious stones attached to the breastplate. The high priest entered God’s presence to seek deliverance from God’s judgment (the breastplate is identified with judgment; Ex 28:15) for his people and in order to keep the people constantly in God’s remembrance (v 12), as symbolized by the two onyx stones. The third theme is the role of high priest as the representative of God to Israel. This dimension of the office is seen in the Urim and Thummim, kept in the breastpiece, by means of which God made known his will to Israel. The high priest, Aaron, fully robed, was a splendid figure, and the splendor of his garments indicated the magnificence of the office with which he had been entrusted.<\/p>\n<p>The high priesthood was to be passed on within the family (for the high priest was expected to be a married man), although in later history the practice was not always adhered to. On Aaron’s death, the office passed to Eleazar, one of his four sons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriests\">The Priests<\/p>\n<p>Priests took office not as the result of a particular vocation but by virtue of priestly descent. Thus the first priests were the four sons of Aaron: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These four were ordained at the same time that Aaron was ordained high priest (Ex 28:1). Like him, they had special clothing, which was basically similar, though it lacked the distinctive garments of the high priest (the special ephod, the breastpiece, and the crown). The priesthood would be passed down through their sons.<\/p>\n<p>The sanctity of the priestly office was such that it was preserved from degeneration through specific laws. A man must be a descendant of Aaron to be a priest, but he was also required to meet a variety of other qualifications. He would not marry a divorcée or a former prostitute (Lv 21:7). If he was afflicted by certain kinds of disease or congenital defects, he was barred from priestly office (e.g., blindness, lameness, mutilation, being a hunchback or dwarf; vv 16-23). The principle involved was similar to that applying to animals used in sacrifice—only those free from defect or blemish were suitable for divine service.<\/p>\n<p>In the earliest days of the priesthood there is some information provided in the biblical text concerning the specific duties of the priests. Eleazar had overall responsibility for the tabernacle and its offerings (Nm 4:16); assisted Moses in a number of duties, such as numbering the people and dividing the land (26:1-2; 32:2); and later served as an adviser to Joshua. Ithamar was responsible for the construction of the tabernacle (Ex 38:21) and supervised the families of the Gershonites and Merarites (Nm 4:28-33). Nadab and Abihu, however, died soon after their ordination as a result of a sinful act in their priestly duties (Lv 10:1-7), which may have been related in part to drunkenness (vv 8-9).<\/p>\n<p>Priestly duties, in general, fell into three areas (Dt 33:8-10). First, priests were responsible, in conjunction with the high priest, for declaring God’s will to the people. Second, they had responsibilities in religious education; they were to teach to Israel God’s ordinances and law (v 10). Third, they were to be the servants of the tabernacle, participating in Israel’s sacrifices and worship. There were a number of other duties that may have fallen to them, which they would have shared with the Levites in general.<\/p>\n<p>The priests, along with all other Levites, did not own any land, as did the other Israelite tribes. Their task was to be entirely in the direct service to God. The absence of land, however, meant that they could not support and feed themselves as could other men and women. Consequently, the law specified that they could be supported for their services by the people as a whole. They were to receive, from worshipers, portions of animals that were brought to the tabernacle, as well as corn, wine, oil, and wool.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLevites\">The Levites<\/p>\n<p>This term includes the priests, in a broad sense, for the sons of Aaron belonged to the tribe of Levi. For practical purposes, however, the Levites were those of the tribe other than the priests. The Levites also functioned in the service of the tabernacle, though they had a subordinate position. They, too, were professional men and were paid in money and in kind for their services. Though they did not inherit tribal territory of their own, there were a number of cities set aside for their use (Nm 35:1-8), and pasturelands were designated outside those cities for their livestock.<\/p>\n<p>The Levites were divided into three principal families, the descendants of Kohath, Gershon, and Merari (Nm 4). Each of these families had particular responsibilities with respect to the care and transport of the tabernacle. The sons of Kohath carried the tabernacle furniture (after it had been covered by the priests), the sons of Gershon cared for the coverings and screens, and the sons of Merari carried and erected the tabernacle’s frame. The priests, by contrast, were responsible for the transportation of the ark of the covenant. The role of each Levite, as servant of the tabernacle, was restricted; he undertook his professional duties between the ages of 25 and 50 (8:24-26).<\/p>\n<p>Although many of the duties of the Levites were of a mundane nature, they also had a very significant religious role. The law required that all the firstborn, including firstborn sons, be given to God, recalling the slaying of the firstborn at the exodus from Egypt. The Levites’ role in religion was that of being accepted by God in the place of the firstborn sons of Israel (Nm 3:11-13); their cattle, too, were accepted in place of the Israelites’ firstborn cattle. In the census taken in the time of Moses, the firstborn Israelites exceeded the number of the Levites, and a five-shekel redemption fee had to be paid into the priestly coffers for each person in excess (vv 40-51). The representative and substitutionary nature of the Levites can be seen in Israelite religion. Like the priests, they played a part in the larger activity of mediation between God and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The law of Deuteronomy specifies a number of duties that may have fallen upon both priests and Levites (though the texts are ambiguous). These duties included participation in the activity of the law courts as judges, perhaps with special reference to religious crimes (Dt 17:8-9), taking care of the Book of the Law (v 18), controlling the lives and health of lepers (24:8), and participating directly in the conduct of covenant renewal ceremonies (27:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheHistoryoftheInstitution\">The History of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>In theory, the covenant law of Moses determined the nature and course of the offices of priests and Levites for the future history of Israel. In practice, however, changing historical circumstances and changes in the shape of Israel’s religion and culture altered the shape of the priesthood and the role of the Levites from time to time. And even more significantly, the persons who held the offices shaped them and their effectiveness through their faithfulness or unfaithfulness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood before the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>In the time of Joshua, the priests continued to undertake their important task of carrying the ark of the covenant. The Levites assisted in the division and allocation of the newly acquired land among the Israelite tribes. In Joshua 21, there is a detailed list of the allocation of cities to both priests and Levites, in fulfillment of the earlier legislation. In the days of the settlement, beyond the Conquest, there is some evidence that the Levites took over the priestly duty of transporting the ark (1 Sm 6:15; 2 Sm 15:24).<\/p>\n<p>The writer of the book of Judges has recorded two stories that illuminate the lives of particular Levites. The first, the story of Micah (Jgs 17–18), describes the establishment of a local shrine in which Micah’s son was appointed as a priest (though he was not of Levite or Aaronic descent). Later, Micah hired an itinerant Levite to function as a priest in his shrine, though subsequently that Levite was persuaded to serve the tribe of Dan as a priest. It is difficult to fit the details of this story into the theoretical model of priests and Levites, though the story may illustrate the confused state of Israel’s religion at the time. What is particularly significant is that the role of the Levite-priest was primarily oracular (18:5-6). The second story in Judges is the rather horrifying account of a Levite and his concubine (ch 19). The story illustrates the moral decline and lack of law and order in Israel at the time, but it sheds little light on the role of the Levites.<\/p>\n<p>More information is provided about the priesthood during the 11th century <span>BC<\/span>, immediately before the establishment of the monarchy. The tabernacle (by now probably a semipermanent structure) and the ark of the covenant were located in Shiloh. The priest in charge of the sanctuary in Shiloh was Eli, who may have been a descendant of Aaron’s son Ithamar. His two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, also served as priests, indicating that the principle of family descent was still operative with respect to the priesthood. But although Eli was a faithful priest, his two sons abused the office.<\/p>\n<p>The precise role of Samuel in this period is unclear. He was primarily a judge and a prophet, but it is difficult to determine whether he was also a priest. In the historical narrative, he is not called a priest, though Psalm 99:6 might be interpreted to indicate his priestly office. There are a number of passages, however, that indicate he acted like a priest. For example, he offered sacrifices (1 Sm 7:9-10); as a young man he served in the sanctuary of Shiloh and wore an ephod (ch 2). Furthermore, one of the biblical genealogies implies priestly descent (1 Chr 6:23-30). Nevertheless, he is not normally identified as a priest and the introduction to his story refers to him as an Ephraimite, by descent from his father (1 Sm 1:1), not a Levite. If the priest is perceived as a permanent servant of the sanctuary, as was Eli, then it is clear that Samuel was not a priest. But the priestly role of Samuel may perhaps be related to the fact that his mother “lent” him to God (v 28) while he was still a boy.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Time of David and Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>Several radical changes took place during the reign of David and Solomon. These were a result, primarily, of the establishment of a permanent temple in Jerusalem and the installation of the ark of the covenant there. During the time of Saul, the first king of Israel, the social structure was essentially the same as it had been in the time of the judges. Saul, as king, was a military leader, but his relationship to religion and the priesthood was not clearly determined.<\/p>\n<p>David changed the situation in many important respects. After his capture of the city of Jerusalem, he made that place the political and religious capital of his nation. The religious centrality of Jerusalem was assured by moving the ark of the covenant there, together with the tabernacle. Jerusalem now became the permanent location of the ark, and therefore the permanent center of religion; at the same time, the various regional shrines, which had developed in the premonarchical period, were gradually eliminated.<\/p>\n<p>These changes had numerous implications for the priesthood and the Levites. During David’s reign, there were two principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. Abiathar, a former priest of Nob, had joined David before his rise to power; he appears to have been a descendant of Eli, and through him of Ithamar, one of Aaron’s sons. Zadok’s background is less clear, though his lineage appears to go back to Aaron’s other son, Eleazar. These two priests are always named together in the texts describing David’s reign, and Zadok is always mentioned before Abiathar. Although neither is explicitly identified as high priest in the ancient texts, there is some evidence to suggest that Abiathar functioned as high priest (1 Kgs 2:35); in NT times, he is identified as such (Mk 2:26). Zadok, during David’s reign, may have been particularly responsible for the care of the ark of the covenant (2 Sm 15:24-25). These two priests had a significant position in David’s royal establishment; they may also have shared overall responsibility for the priests, whose lives were now centered on the Jerusalem temple.<\/p>\n<p>Much of David’s time was focused upon the preparations for building a permanent temple for God. In the preparation for the temple, and in its completion during the reign of King Solomon, the new activities of the Levites may be seen. (The construction of a permanent temple automatically removed their former responsibilities related to the care and transportation of the tabernacle.) Large numbers of Levites were employed as laborers in the actual building of the temple. Others found new tasks in the worship of God in the tabernacle during David’s reign and in the temple upon its completion. To the Levites, and especially to Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, was given primary responsibility for the music of worship; this involved not only singing but also the playing of a variety of instruments in the temple’s orchestra or band. The Levites had also a variety of other tasks; they worked as gatekeepers at the sanctuary, assisted the priests in the preparation of sacrifices, kept the sanctuary clean, and functioned as general administrative and legal officers (1 Chr 23:1-32). Other Levites functioned as bankers, with primary responsibility for the temple treasuries (26:20-28).<\/p>\n<p>Following David’s death, there was a dispute over the royal succession, from which Solomon emerged as the new king. During his reign, the temple was brought to its completion and the regular worship of the nation was conducted there. In the matter of succession, however, Abiathar had supported a losing candidate, and when Solomon was made king, he lost his important office in the royal court. During Solomon’s reign, the control of the priesthood passed into the hands of Zadok.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood during the Divided Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>The great empire, which had been built by David and maintained by Solomon, collapsed after Solomon’s death. From the ruins, two new and relatively insignificant states emerged. The southern kingdom, Judah, retained Jerusalem as its capital and the temple as its center of worship. The northern kingdom, Israel, located its first capital at Shechem, from where it was later moved to Tirzah.<\/p>\n<p>In the southern state of Judah, the priests and Levites continued to function normally within the Jerusalem temple. The office of high priest continued to be passed on by descent within the family of Zadok, who had held office in Solomon’s reign. The continuity of office in this family was to be retained down into the time of the second temple, when the Zadokite succession was interrupted about 171 <span>BC<\/span>. Nevertheless, for all the continuity of religion in Jerusalem, all was not well with religion in Judah, neither during the reign of its first king, Rehoboam, nor during the reigns of his successors. During Rehoboam’s reign, there was a decline in religion and also in the priesthood, when popular forms of religion were introduced as a result of foreign influence (1 Kgs 14:22-24). The history of the southern kingdom was marked by periods of religious decline followed by reform, often as a result of the activities of the prophets. The role of the priesthood was all too rarely one of spiritual leadership, and the priests themselves were often the subject of criticism by the prophets (e.g., Jer 2:8, 26).<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom, whose first king was Jeroboam I, inevitably had to introduce some radical changes in religion. Jeroboam could not recognize the temple of Jerusalem, partly because it lay outside his state and partly because it was intimately associated with the royal line of David. Jeroboam established two principal shrines in his kingdom, both of which were to retain importance during the relatively short life of the northern kingdom (200 years). The first was at Bethel, in the southern part of his kingdom near the border of Judah (it was only about 12 miles, or 19.3 kilometers, north of Jerusalem). The second shrine, or sanctuary, was at Dan, in the far northern part of his kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Both these sanctuaries had ancient associations with the Hebrew traditions. Bethel is referred to as early as the time of Abram (Gn 12:8), and the sanctuary at Dan is known from the history of the judges (Jgs 18). There may indeed have been priests and Levites still residing in these two places, descendants of the former servants of the sanctuaries. But Jeroboam established a non-Levitical priesthood to serve in these sanctuaries and in various smaller shrines or “high places,” thereby cutting off the religious tradition of the northern state even more radically from that of Judah. The royal sanctuary at Bethel, so close to the Jerusalem temple, may have been set up in deliberate competition with the Judean sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>The history of the priesthood in the northern kingdom is no more impressive than that of Judah. Many of the prophets, including Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah, condemned the northern sanctuaries and their priests. Hosea was forceful in his condemnation: “As marauders lie in ambush for a man, so do bands of priests; they murder on the road to Shechem, committing shameful crimes” (Hos 6:9, <span>niv<\/span>). Those to whom the spiritual lives of the chosen people had been entrusted only rarely lived up to their responsibilities.<\/p>\n<h5>Priests and Levites during and after the Exile<\/h5>\n<p>The northern kingdom came to its end in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, defeated by the armies of Assyria, but religious life continued in Judah for a while longer. Eventually, the end of the southern state came about 586 <span>BC<\/span>; the defeat of the state by the Babylonians was accompanied by the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Lam 2:20). The Babylonian commander took Seraiah, the high priest, and Zephaniah, his assistant, to Riblah, where, along with other officials, they were executed (2 Kgs 25:18-21). Then a policy of exile was established by the Babylonians; the most important and influential people of Judah were deported to Babylon, while the less significant were allowed to remain, for they were unlikely to cause trouble. Of those exiled from Judah, many may have been priests (Jer 29:1), for they were men of influence. By way of contrast, it seems likely that a much smaller number of Levites was exiled, reflecting perhaps their inferior social position.<\/p>\n<p>In the city of Jerusalem there was little normal religious life during the years of the exile; the altar had been destroyed and was not restored until after the exile. No doubt some kind of activity continued, but it was an impoverished form of religion. Most of the priests were in exile in Babylon, but they could not function, for there was no temple or sanctuary. Ezekiel implies that God himself was the only “sanctuary” for the exiles (Ez 11:16). Not until the return from exile and the restoration of Jerusalem and its temple could the normal functions of priests and Levites resume.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian Empire was defeated, the new Persian conquerors instituted a policy whereby the Hebrew exiles could return to their homeland. Of those returning, 4,289 are designated as priests and members of priestly families, while only 341 were Levites (Ezr 2:36-42); the imbalance probably reflects the imbalance in the number of those exiled initially. Under Joshua (Jeshua), the priest, and Zerubbabel, work began on the restoration. The priests played a significant role in the first year of the return, in the restoration of the altar in Jerusalem, so that sacrifice and worship to God could resume. Once the altar had been restored, the work began on the temple itself in the second year of the return. In this work, both the priests and the Levites were involved, and the laying of new foundations for the temple began. When the foundation had been laid, both priests, in their vestments, and Levites, in their role as singers and musicians, participated in the ceremony of dedication (3:8-13). Again, when the temple had been rebuilt, both priests and Levites participated in the ceremony of dedication (6:16-18). The restoration, however, was concerned with more than buildings; it also involved a moral and religious component. Though priests and Levites helped in this task, they were also affected by it. Many, for example, had married foreign wives (9:1), and thus had to conform to Ezra’s reform laws.<\/p>\n<p>To some extent, the priests and Levites resumed their normal duties in the worship of the postexilic period. The priests were engaged in the conduct of the temple worship. The Levites assisted, as temple servants (Neh 11:3), as treasurers and collectors of tithes (10:37-39), and as instructors or teachers of the law of God (8:7-9). Nevertheless, the history of the priesthood after the exile is not free of blemish. Condemnation of the abuses of the priestly office was delivered by the prophet Malachi (Mal 1:6–2:9). Malachi catalogues a list of priestly evils reminiscent of the evil priests who lived during the time of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest continued after the exile among the descendants of Zadok, being held first by Joshua (Hg 1:1). The different political circumstances, however, changed the nature of the high priestly office. Whereas in the days of the monarchy the high priest was subservient to the king, there was no king, in the proper sense, after the exile. From a political perspective, the Jews were members of a province or colony; for practical purposes, they were a community based upon a common religion. The high priest was no longer subject to the secular authority of a Jewish king, but his religious authority was considerable, and in some ways his functions were similar to those of a king in preexilic times.<\/p>\n<h5>The Priesthood in the Maccabean Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the second century <span>BC<\/span>, some changes took place in the priesthood, particularly with respect to the office of high priest, which marked the end of the OT era and set the background for the NT period. Judea, in the second century, was ruled by the Seleucid kings, who had inherited a portion of the massive Greek Empire established by Alexander the Great. The Judean province was controlled internally under the high priesthood, whose authority was received from the Seleucid kings.<\/p>\n<p>For the first three decades of the second century <span>BC<\/span>, the high priesthood remained with the Zadokite line of descent. The high priests were members of the (Zadokite) Oniad family: first, Onias III (198–174 <span>BC<\/span>); then Jason, brother of Onias III (174–171 <span>BC<\/span>). It was in the period of Jason that there began a series of events that would terminate the Zadokite tradition.<\/p>\n<p>Onias III had opposed the Hellenization policy of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), which threatened to undermine the Jewish faith. Antiochus replaced Onias by Jason, who in effect purchased the high priesthood from the Seleucid king. In purchasing the priestly office, Jason had set a dangerous precedent; although he was of Zadokite descent, his act implied that the office could be bought and that descent was not vital. The opponents of Jason, the Tobiads, were able to remove him from office and have their own candidate, Menelaus (who was not a Zadokite), appointed in his place. This act resulted in a civil war between those supporting Jason and those supporting Menelaus, and the war in turn culminated in ruthless repressive measures by Antiochus Epiphanes; there were massacres in Jerusalem, and the temple was desecrated (167 <span>BC<\/span>). The desecration of the temple led to the Maccabean revolt, as a result of which the Jews regained their independence for a short time. Menelaus retained the office of high priest until 161 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Alcimus (161–159 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>There then followed a period during which there was no high priest for seven years. The political climate, however, was such that it became unlikely that the Zadokite line would ever regain the high priesthood, which had been established in the time of King Solomon. The Maccabean Jonathan gained control of Jerusalem, and in 152 <span>BC<\/span>, with the approval of the Seleucid king, he was formally invested with the high priest’s robes of office. He was succeeded as high priest and ruler by his brother Simon in 143 <span>BC<\/span>, who also held the office with the approval of the Seleucids (Demetrius II). But in the third year of his reign (140 <span>BC<\/span>), the high priesthood of Simon received public approval in a great religious assembly, and the family of Simon became “high priest forever” (1 Macc 14:41-47). That event marked the real termination of the Zadokite tradition and the foundation of the Hasmonean line.<\/p>\n<p>The establishment of the high priestly office outside the Zadokite line did not go without challenge. It is probable that a sect within Judaism, now known as the Essenes, was born in reaction to the high priesthood of Simon. The Essenes (better known for the Dead Sea Scrolls) appear to have been founded by a Zadokite priest who rejected the authenticity and authority of Simon. Thus, in a limited sense, the Zadokite priests continued to survive.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePriesthoodinNewTestamentTimes\">The Priesthood in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>In the early NT period, both priests and Levites continued to function within the Jewish religion. Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, was a priest belonging to the division of Abijah (Lk 1:5), and his wife was also of priestly descent. When Zechariah was visited by an angel, he was engaged at the time in priestly duties in the Jerusalem temple—various divisions of priests took responsibility for the temple services for a period of time and then returned to their homes (v 23), as another division took over. The distinction between priests and Levites is also maintained in the NT (Jn 1:19) and appears in Jesus’ parable concerning the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:31-32). Both priests and Levites were among the earliest converts to Christianity; Barnabas was a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36), and several priests responded to the proclamation of the gospel (6:7).<\/p>\n<p>The office of high priest is frequently referred to in the NT. Several high priests are named, the plurality of current and former holders of the office reflecting the nature of the position as an essentially political appointment (as distinct from its oldest definition, that of an office passing from father to son on the death of the father). The two most significant high priests in the NT are those who held office during the lifetime of Jesus. Annas was high priest about <span>AD<\/span> 6 to 15, but even after he ceased to hold the office formally, he continued to exert considerable influence through his son-in-law, the high priest Caiaphas (c. <span>AD<\/span> 18–36). Both were significant figures in the trial of Jesus. At a later date, Ananias, son of Nedebaeus, was high priest (c. <span>AD<\/span> 47–58) and president of the Sanhedrin during the time in which Paul was brought to trial.<\/p>\n<p>The priesthood held considerable authority in NT times. Most internal and religious matters in the Roman province of Judea were within the authority of the Sanhedrin, which functioned as a kind of provincial government, though its powers were limited in certain matters by Rome. Its membership included the ruling and former high priests and a large number of Sadducees, many of whom belonged to influential priestly families. This priestly influence in the Sanhedrin was indicative of the important role of the temple in Jewish life during the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In <span>AD<\/span> 70, following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, a radical change came about in the significance of the priesthood in Judaism. The end of the temple removed in effect the purpose for the existence of the priesthood. Although the priesthood continued after a fashion until the Bar-Kochba rebellion in <span>AD<\/span> 135, its days were numbered after <span>AD<\/span> 70. Since the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, Judaism has developed without priests, and its course down to the present century has been charted by the rabbis, the spiritual descendants of the Pharisees.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priesthood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIESTS AND LEVITES Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levit...","summary_en":"PRIESTS AND LEVITES Servants of God in the OT. There were three basic classes of religious personnel in ancient Israel: prophets, wise men, and priests and Levites. The classical prophets fulfilled a vocation but were not professionals; they were not paid for their task and functioned only in response to the particular call of God. The wise men were involved in government and education; some of their duties were secular, though they were also involved in moral education. The priests and Levit...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34560,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shabbethai","title_en":"Shabbethai","content_ro":"<h3>SHABBETHAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married upon returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15). He explained the law to the people at Ezra’s reading (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the Levites who oversaw the outside work of the sanctuary during the postexilic period (Neh 11:16). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHABBETHAI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married upon returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15). He explained the law to the people at Ezra’s reading (Neh 8:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the chiefs of the Levites who oversaw the outside work of the sanctuary during the postexilic period (Neh 11:16). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHABBETHAI 1. Levite who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married upon returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15). He explained the law to the people at Ezra’s reading (Neh 8:7). 2. One of the chiefs of the Levites who oversaw the outside work of the sanctuary during the postexilic period (Neh 11:16). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.","summary_en":"SHABBETHAI 1. Levite who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married upon returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15). He explained the law to the people at Ezra’s reading (Neh 8:7). 2. One of the chiefs of the Levites who oversaw the outside work of the sanctuary during the postexilic period (Neh 11:16). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35014,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sherebiah","title_en":"Sherebiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEREBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite, a descendant of Mahli. Sherebiah, described as a man of understanding, was sent as a priest for the temple at Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 8:18; Neh 12:8). During the return journey, he was one of 12 chief priests appointed to guard the silver, gold, and vessels presented for temple use (Ezr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. One who helped the people understand the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7), and among the Levites who stood on the stairs leading the praise service (9:4-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the leaders of the Levites who led the songs of praise and thanksgiving (Neh 12:24).<\/li>\n<p>It is possible that the above references refer to the same person.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHEREBIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite, a descendant of Mahli. Sherebiah, described as a man of understanding, was sent as a priest for the temple at Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 8:18; Neh 12:8). During the return journey, he was one of 12 chief priests appointed to guard the silver, gold, and vessels presented for temple use (Ezr 8:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. One who helped the people understand the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7), and among the Levites who stood on the stairs leading the praise service (9:4-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. One of the leaders of the Levites who led the songs of praise and thanksgiving (Neh 12:24).<\/li>\n<p>It is possible that the above references refer to the same person.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHEREBIAH 1. Levite, a descendant of Mahli. Sherebiah, described as a man of understanding, was sent as a priest for the temple at Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 8:18; Neh 12:8). During the return journey, he was one of 12 chief priests appointed to guard the silver, gold, and vessels presented for temple use (Ezr 8:24). 2. One who helped the people understand the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7), and among the Levites who stood on the stairs leading the praise service (9:4-5). 3. One of the le...","summary_en":"SHEREBIAH 1. Levite, a descendant of Mahli. Sherebiah, described as a man of understanding, was sent as a priest for the temple at Jerusalem following the exile (Ezr 8:18; Neh 12:8). During the return journey, he was one of 12 chief priests appointed to guard the silver, gold, and vessels presented for temple use (Ezr 8:24). 2. One who helped the people understand the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:7), and among the Levites who stood on the stairs leading the praise service (9:4-5). 3. One of the le...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36732,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Talmud*","title_en":"Talmud*","content_ro":"<h3>TALMUD*<\/h3>\n<p>Word meaning “to study,” “to learn.” It is a body of literature in Hebrew and Aramaic, covering interpretations of legal portions of the OT, as well as wise sayings from many rabbinical sources; it spans a time period from shortly after Ezra, about 400 <span>BC<\/span>, until approximately the <span>AD<\/span> 500s.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDevelopmentoftheOralLaw\">Origin and Development of the Oral Law<\/p>\n<p>Traditional Jews believe that a second law was given to Moses in addition to the first or written word; this second one was given orally, and handed down from generation to generation in oral form. The Talmud itself makes this claim for an early origin, and <em>Pirke Aboth<\/em> 1:1 states that it is attributed to Moses. Other scholars do not agree on this origin of the oral law and insist that it had its beginning and development after Ezra. For example, there is no mention by the preexilic prophets concerning a lapse from the oral law, but the messages of the prophets abound in warnings about abandoning the written revelation given to Moses, thereby indicating the absence of a body of oral tradition prior to the Babylonian exile.<\/p>\n<p>In the period succeeding Ezra (“a scribe skilled in the law of Moses,” Ezr 7:6), teacher succeeded teacher in synagogues and schools, and their understanding of the OT was treasured and memorized. Across the centuries, many memorizing devices were employed to learn and remember the growing mass of opinions and interpretation. But eventually not even the best memory could retain all the available materials. It was finally necessary to compile a summary of all the essential teachings of preceding generations, and also to facilitate access for future generations to the immense treasure of thought, religious feeling, and wisdom for guidance and inspiration. The compilation is known as the Talmud, the basic repository of the oral law. Jewish people regard it as second to the Scriptures. A literature recognized as the genius of a national and religious creation, it has a profound influence upon the development of the Jewish world view.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RationaleforanOralLaw\">Rationale for an Oral Law<\/p>\n<p>With the cessation of the postexilic prophets, and with the continual development of the complexity of life in Israel and its relationships to the outer world, there arose a need for further elaboration of the laws of the Pentateuch. The oral law, at first, was intended to be helpful so that people could obey the written Word of God.<\/p>\n<p>The oral law contained in the Talmud has a twofold function. First, it provided an interpretation of the written Law. According to the rabbis, this is necessary since the oral law makes it possible to observe the written Law. Without the former, it would be impossible to observe the latter. A good example is the concept of not working, as indicated by the biblical Sabbath law. Everyone knew that work was not done on the Sabbath. The rabbis contend, however, that it took the oral law to define what was meant by work.<\/p>\n<p>The second aspect of the oral law is that it modifies and seeks to adapt the written Law to fit new conditions and circumstances. The oral law is supposed to make the written Law a viable document from generation to generation. Without this oral law, the written Law would become obsolete. Therefore, the oral law is necessary for observance of prohibitions as well as for stressing what is good Jewish devotion and loyalty.<\/p>\n<p>It is true that every generation must face new social, political, and economic conditions, which make necessary a different application of the Word of God. But the Word of God cannot be changed in order to accommodate personal desires or interpret new problems in different ages. Something of this is apparent in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, when Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders for having preempted the Word of God by their oral traditions (Mk 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BasicAntecedentstotheTalmud\">Basic Antecedents to the Talmud<\/p>\n<p>One of the earliest means for teaching oral law was a running commentary, or Midrash (“to expound”), of the biblical text. If the teaching handled the legal portions of the OT, then it was referred to as Midrash Halakah (the latter emphasized a way by which one walks or lives). When treating nonlegal, ethical, or devotional portions of the OT, then the opinions and understanding was called Midrash Haggadah (“narration”). Ezra and his trained associates were using the method of Midrash, upon the occasion of the completion of the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span>, when they “explained the law to the people while the people remained in their place. They read from the book, from the law of God, translating to give the sense so that they understood the reading” (Neh 8:7-8, <span>nasb<\/span>). This kind of oral Midrash is the method followed by generations of teachers after Ezra, when the religious leaders were known as Soferim (“bookmen” or “scribes”), until about 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Sometimes referred to as the “Great Synagogue,” these scholars provided teaching to “hedge” the revealed moral and ceremonial word so that Israel would never stray into idolatry or ignorance again. The Soferim were succeeded by the Hasidim (“pious ones”), who tried to maintain a high level of religious devotion. In turn, the Hasidim were succeeded by the Pharisees (“separated ones”) at about 128 <span>BC<\/span>. Each of these groups contributed to the Midrash method. This material continued to increase and was transmitted orally. Succeeding generations learned these materials through continuous repetition. Therefore, the new method was called Mishnah (“repetition”), and the teachers of the Mishnah were known as Tannaim (“those who handed down orally”). Both Midrash and Mishnah existed side by side in ensuing generations. There came a time, however, when it was necessary to codify the oral law covered by Mishnah, since this became cumbersome to learn as a body of material. Eventually, this material was put into writing; it came to be known as Gemara (“completion”). The combination of Gemara and Mishnah constitute the Talmud.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gemara; Haggadah; Halakah; Law, Biblical Concept of; Midrash; Mishnah; Pharisees; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TALMUD*<\/h3>\n<p>Word meaning “to study,” “to learn.” It is a body of literature in Hebrew and Aramaic, covering interpretations of legal portions of the OT, as well as wise sayings from many rabbinical sources; it spans a time period from shortly after Ezra, about 400 <span>BC<\/span>, until approximately the <span>AD<\/span> 500s.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDevelopmentoftheOralLaw\">Origin and Development of the Oral Law<\/p>\n<p>Traditional Jews believe that a second law was given to Moses in addition to the first or written word; this second one was given orally, and handed down from generation to generation in oral form. The Talmud itself makes this claim for an early origin, and <em>Pirke Aboth<\/em> 1:1 states that it is attributed to Moses. Other scholars do not agree on this origin of the oral law and insist that it had its beginning and development after Ezra. For example, there is no mention by the preexilic prophets concerning a lapse from the oral law, but the messages of the prophets abound in warnings about abandoning the written revelation given to Moses, thereby indicating the absence of a body of oral tradition prior to the Babylonian exile.<\/p>\n<p>In the period succeeding Ezra (“a scribe skilled in the law of Moses,” Ezr 7:6), teacher succeeded teacher in synagogues and schools, and their understanding of the OT was treasured and memorized. Across the centuries, many memorizing devices were employed to learn and remember the growing mass of opinions and interpretation. But eventually not even the best memory could retain all the available materials. It was finally necessary to compile a summary of all the essential teachings of preceding generations, and also to facilitate access for future generations to the immense treasure of thought, religious feeling, and wisdom for guidance and inspiration. The compilation is known as the Talmud, the basic repository of the oral law. Jewish people regard it as second to the Scriptures. A literature recognized as the genius of a national and religious creation, it has a profound influence upon the development of the Jewish world view.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RationaleforanOralLaw\">Rationale for an Oral Law<\/p>\n<p>With the cessation of the postexilic prophets, and with the continual development of the complexity of life in Israel and its relationships to the outer world, there arose a need for further elaboration of the laws of the Pentateuch. The oral law, at first, was intended to be helpful so that people could obey the written Word of God.<\/p>\n<p>The oral law contained in the Talmud has a twofold function. First, it provided an interpretation of the written Law. According to the rabbis, this is necessary since the oral law makes it possible to observe the written Law. Without the former, it would be impossible to observe the latter. A good example is the concept of not working, as indicated by the biblical Sabbath law. Everyone knew that work was not done on the Sabbath. The rabbis contend, however, that it took the oral law to define what was meant by work.<\/p>\n<p>The second aspect of the oral law is that it modifies and seeks to adapt the written Law to fit new conditions and circumstances. The oral law is supposed to make the written Law a viable document from generation to generation. Without this oral law, the written Law would become obsolete. Therefore, the oral law is necessary for observance of prohibitions as well as for stressing what is good Jewish devotion and loyalty.<\/p>\n<p>It is true that every generation must face new social, political, and economic conditions, which make necessary a different application of the Word of God. But the Word of God cannot be changed in order to accommodate personal desires or interpret new problems in different ages. Something of this is apparent in the first century <span>AD<\/span>, when Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders for having preempted the Word of God by their oral traditions (Mk 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BasicAntecedentstotheTalmud\">Basic Antecedents to the Talmud<\/p>\n<p>One of the earliest means for teaching oral law was a running commentary, or Midrash (“to expound”), of the biblical text. If the teaching handled the legal portions of the OT, then it was referred to as Midrash Halakah (the latter emphasized a way by which one walks or lives). When treating nonlegal, ethical, or devotional portions of the OT, then the opinions and understanding was called Midrash Haggadah (“narration”). Ezra and his trained associates were using the method of Midrash, upon the occasion of the completion of the Jerusalem wall in 444 <span>BC<\/span>, when they “explained the law to the people while the people remained in their place. They read from the book, from the law of God, translating to give the sense so that they understood the reading” (Neh 8:7-8, <span>nasb<\/span>). This kind of oral Midrash is the method followed by generations of teachers after Ezra, when the religious leaders were known as Soferim (“bookmen” or “scribes”), until about 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Sometimes referred to as the “Great Synagogue,” these scholars provided teaching to “hedge” the revealed moral and ceremonial word so that Israel would never stray into idolatry or ignorance again. The Soferim were succeeded by the Hasidim (“pious ones”), who tried to maintain a high level of religious devotion. In turn, the Hasidim were succeeded by the Pharisees (“separated ones”) at about 128 <span>BC<\/span>. Each of these groups contributed to the Midrash method. This material continued to increase and was transmitted orally. Succeeding generations learned these materials through continuous repetition. Therefore, the new method was called Mishnah (“repetition”), and the teachers of the Mishnah were known as Tannaim (“those who handed down orally”). Both Midrash and Mishnah existed side by side in ensuing generations. There came a time, however, when it was necessary to codify the oral law covered by Mishnah, since this became cumbersome to learn as a body of material. Eventually, this material was put into writing; it came to be known as Gemara (“completion”). The combination of Gemara and Mishnah constitute the Talmud.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gemara; Haggadah; Halakah; Law, Biblical Concept of; Midrash; Mishnah; Pharisees; Torah; Tradition; Tradition, Oral.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TALMUD* Word meaning “to study,” “to learn.” It is a body of literature in Hebrew and Aramaic, covering interpretations of legal portions of the OT, as well as wise sayings from many rabbinical sources; it spans a time period from shortly after Ezra, about 400 BC, until approximately the AD 500s. Origin and Development of the Oral Law Traditional Jews believe that a second law was given to Moses in addition to the first or written word; this second one was given orally, and handed down from g...","summary_en":"TALMUD* Word meaning “to study,” “to learn.” It is a body of literature in Hebrew and Aramaic, covering interpretations of legal portions of the OT, as well as wise sayings from many rabbinical sources; it spans a time period from shortly after Ezra, about 400 BC, until approximately the AD 500s. Origin and Development of the Oral Law Traditional Jews believe that a second law was given to Moses in addition to the first or written word; this second one was given orally, and handed down from g...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48205,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","summary_en":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75831,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","summary_en":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103457,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","summary_en":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131083,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:7-9<\/strong> The <em>Levites<\/em> always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably <em>explained the meaning<\/em> of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","summary_en":"8:7-9 The Levites always had the role of teaching people God’s word (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:5-6). In this case, they probably explained the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures to smaller groups of people in Aramaic. Most of the people spoke Aramaic, the language of Babylon, rather than Hebrew as their first language. Jewish leaders eventually translated large portions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, allowing people to hear and study the Bible in a language they understood.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":4901,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the (Ancient) Bible*, Versions","title_en":"of the (Ancient) Bible*, Versions","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, V<span>ersions of the (Ancient<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>To get a picture of how the Bible has come to different peoples in the world, spread out a map of the eastern hemisphere and imagine Palestine as the center of a pool. Think of God’s revelation of himself through the prophets, the Christ, and the apostles as a pebble dropped into the center of that body of water. In your mind’s eye watch the advance of the concentric circles out across that world pool from Palestine and call out the languages covered by the fast-spreading ripple: to the south, Coptic, Arabic, Ethiopic; to the west, Greek, Latin, Gothic, English; to the north, Armenian, Georgian, Slavonic; and eastward toward the rising sun, Syriac. The farther the Bible moved from its Hebrew\/Aramaic\/Greek center in Palestine, the later the date of its translation into yet another language.<\/p>\n<p>That pebble of God’s revelation, the Bible, was produced in the Middle East predominantly in two of Palestine’s languages. The OT was written in Hebrew with the exception of portions of the books of Daniel and Ezra, which may have been written in Aramaic, the language of the Captivity. Probably the entire NT was written in common Greek (koine), which was the dominant language of the eastern half of Caesar’s domain and understood almost everywhere else in the Roman Empire. Therefore every person who did not speak Hebrew or Greek was apt to remain untouched by God’s written revelation until someone translated the Bible into his language.<\/p>\n<p>The process of Bible translation began even before the birth of Christ, with translations of the OT being made into Greek and Aramaic. Many of the dispersed Jews who lived prior to the coming of Christ did not know Hebrew and therefore required a translation in Greek or Aramaic. The most popular Greek translation of the OT was the Septuagint. It was used by many Jews, and then by many Christians. In fact, the Septuagint was the “Bible” for all the first-generation Christians, including those who wrote various books of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The early Christian missionaries carrying a text of the Septuagint (or Hebrew Bible) and the Greek NT (or portions thereof), which they themselves could read, moved ever outward from those early churches at Jerusalem and Antioch about which we read in the book of Acts. They moved out among peoples whose language they learned to speak. Such missionaries orally translated or paraphrased Bible passages necessary for instruction, preaching, and liturgy. Converts were made. New churches sprang up. Feeling an urgent need for the Bible to be put in the language of the new believers, missionaries would soon set about translating the whole Bible into their language. The impulse behind our modern Wycliffe Bible Translators has always been at the heart of missions, and in that way the major Bible versions were born.<\/p>\n<p>Bible translation was thus spontaneous, invariably informal and oral at first, and sharply evangelistic in its motivation. The early church enthusiastically encouraged and undertook translating efforts. Even as late as the birth of the Slavonic version in the mid-ninth century, popes Adrian II (867–72) and John VIII (872–82) endorsed the project. But an amazing change came in the Western church in regard to Bible translation. Latin took over as the dominant language—such that no one read Greek anymore. Then, as learning became the province of only the wealthy nobility and prelates (churchmen of high rank, such as bishops), as the splendors of classical civilization were lost in the ferment of feudalism in Europe, and as the Roman Catholic hierarchy—headed by the pope—claimed a firm grip on Western Christendom, the Bible was removed from the hands of the laity. Therefore, as long as the priests could read the Latin texts and speak the liturgy in Latin (at least at a minimal level), there was no longer significant motivation for translations into the vernacular.<\/p>\n<p>Latin came to be considered almost a sacred language, and translations of the Bible into the vernacular were viewed with suspicion. Pope Gregory VII (1073–85) gave voice to such suspicions when, only 200 years after Adrian II and John VIII had called for a Slavonic translation, Gregory attempted to stop its circulation. He wrote to King Vratislaus of Bohemia in 1079:<\/p>\n<p>For it is clear to those who reflect upon it that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile in Palestine and northern Africa, the inexorable march of Islam changed the religious texture of the Mediterranean’s eastern and southern littorals. Within 100 years of Muhammad’s death (570–632), over 900 churches had been destroyed and the Koran became the “bible” in the great circle from the walls of embattled Byzantium round to the west—to the Spanish end of Europe.<\/p>\n<p>Cramped by official opposition in the West and hindered by Islamic conquest in the Middle East, Bible translations slowed to a trickle for half a millennium. Translation efforts did not regain vitality until the Protestant Reformation of the early 16th century, at which time missionaries took advantage of movable-type printing (invented by Johannes Gutenberg) to produce multiple translations of the Bible. Erasmus expressed the desire of all Bible translators in the preface of his freshly published Greek NT (1516):<\/p>\n<p>I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel—should read the Epistles of Paul. And I wish these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens. To make them understood is surely the first step. It may be that they might be ridiculed by many, but some would take them to heart. I long that the husbandman should sing portions of them to himself as he follows the plough, that the weaver should hum them to the tune of his shuttle, that the traveller should beguile with their stories the tedium of his journey.<\/p>\n<p>But what materials were used by the early translators and copyists who worked so painstakingly over their Bible translations? At the time of Christ and through the first two centuries of the church, the most popular writing materials were ink on papyrus. Until the first century, “books” were actually scrolls with long sheets of papyrus paper glued end to end and rolled up on paired spindles. Then, later in the first century, another form of a book was created—called the codex (the precursor to the modern form of a book with folded sheets and stitched spine). Christians were among the first to use this form for books. In <span>AD<\/span> 332 the first Christian emperor, Constantine I, ordered 50 Bibles for the churches of his new capital city, Constantinople. He ordered those from Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, and specified that they were not to be scrolls, but codexes (or codices). They were also to be not of papyrus but of vellum, carefully prepared sheep or antelope skins, for it was right about this time, in the late third and early fourth centuries, that codexes and vellum almost universally replaced scrolls and papyrus.<\/p>\n<p>For centuries scribes laboriously copied Bibles all in capital letters; the earliest surviving manuscripts of Bible versions are of that type, called “uncials.” In the ninth and tenth centuries it became the fashion to write in lowercase letters; surviving manuscripts of that type are called “minuscules” or “cursives.” (There were, however, occasional cursive manuscripts as far back as the second century before Christ.) Minuscules dominate the surviving biblical manuscripts from the 10th through the 16th centuries.<\/p>\n<p>It was in 1454 that Johannes Gutenberg made manuscript writing obsolete by using movable type for the first time. His first printed book appeared in 1456, a splendid Latin Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Our printed Bibles today contain chapter and verse divisions that were a relatively late development. Chapter divisions began in the Latin Vulgate and are variously credited to Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1089), to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), or to Hugo de Sancto Caro of the 13th century. Verse numbers first appeared in the fourth edition of the Greek NT issued at Geneva in 1551 by Robert Estienne (Stephanus) and in the Athias Hebrew OT of 1559–61.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Versions of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Complete Bible Versions of Christendom<\/p>\n<p>• Latin Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Coptic Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Gothic Version<\/p>\n<p>• Syriac Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Armenian Version<\/p>\n<p>• Georgian Version<\/p>\n<p>• Ethiopic Version<\/p>\n<p>• Arabic Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Slavonic Version<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestVersionsoftheOldTestament\">Earliest Versions of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first version to be considered, the Samaritan Pentateuch, cannot rightly be termed a translation because it is a Hebrew version of the first five books of the OT, the books of the Law. These books comprise the total canon of Scripture for the Samaritan community, which still survives and is now centered in modern Nablus in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritan Pentateuch reflects a textual tradition different from that of traditional Judaism, whose Hebrew text goes back through the centuries to the work of the Masoretes. The Masoretes were a body of scribes charged with OT text preservation, beginning about <span>AD<\/span> 600 and extending to the first half of the 10th century. It was they who devised a pointing system to indicate the vowels missing from consonantal Hebrew. It is this so-called Masoretic Text that forms (as the “received text”) the basis for the King James Version OT.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritan Pentateuch, on the other hand, goes back to the fourth century before Christ. According to textual scholars, the Samaritan Pentateuch differs from the “received” or Masoretic Hebrew text in about 6,000 places. About 1,000 of those differences need to be taken seriously. Where the text of the Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the Septuagint or one of the other ancient versions against the Hebrew of the Masoretic Text, its witness must be regarded as important. The two oldest manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch outside of Nablus are both codexes. One copy in the John Rylands Library in Manchester, England, bears a date corresponding to <span>AD<\/span> 1211 or 1212; the other is somewhat older than 1149 and is presently in the University Library at Cambridge, England. Two minor translations of the Samaritan Pentateuch also exist; one is the Aramaic Samaritan Targum from early Christian times, the other an Arabic translation from about the 11th century.<\/p>\n<p>The second OT version, the Septuagint, is an actual translation from the Hebrew into the Greek. It is the first translation of the OT known. It was the Bible used by the apostles, the version from which most OT quotations in the NT come, and the Bible of the early church as far as the OT was concerned.<\/p>\n<p>The story of its production, from which it draws its name, is told in “The Letter of Aristeas” (written around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>). Aristeas purportedly was an official of Egypt’s Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–247 <span>BC<\/span>). Ptolemy was attempting to gather all of the world’s books into his great Alexandrian library. The OT was not on hand in translation, the letter says, so Ptolemy sent to the high priest in Jerusalem for texts and scholars to translate. Texts and six elders of each tribe were sent. After being royally entertained by Ptolemy, these 72 elders were cloistered and in exactly 72 days produced the full Greek translation of the OT, called Septuagint (“Seventy”) and usually abbreviated LXX in Roman numerals.<\/p>\n<p>The truth of the matter is probably more prosaic. The Septuagint is a translation done for Hellenized Jews of the Diaspora who, no longer understanding Hebrew, wished to hear and teach the Bible in their language. Scholars argue over the date of the translation, placing portions as early as 250 <span>BC<\/span> and other parts as late as 100 <span>BC<\/span>. Most concur that it was translated in segments by many translators over a couple of centuries and then was gathered together into one library of scrolls or one codex. The Septuagint follows a different order from English Bibles and usually includes up to 15 apocryphal or noncanonical books.<\/p>\n<p>The third OT version is the Aramaic. Biblical Aramaic, called Chaldee up through the 19th century, was the language of the conquerors that gradually became the household speech of the conquered. When the Jewish exiles began to return to Palestine from Babylon in 536 <span>BC<\/span>, they brought Aramaic with them. Many scholars believe that when Ezra and the Levites “explained the meaning of the passage” as the Book of the Law was read (Neh 8:8), they were paraphrasing the Hebrew into Aramaic so all could understand. Aramaic remained as the living language in Palestine up to the Bar-Kochba revolt against the Romans (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135), and Hebrew became increasingly a religious language for synagogue and temple specialists. As priests and scribes read the Law and Prophets, the custom of following the reading with an Aramaic translation spread. Such translations were called targums.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbinical leadership was very loathe to formalize and write down the targums, but inevitably they were collected and standardized. The earliest standardized Targum was that of the Law done by someone known as Onkelos, sometime in the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. Targums on the historical and prophetic books were crystallized in the third and fourth centuries <span>AD<\/span>, with the most important one called the Targum Jonathan ben Uzziel. Evidently no Targums of the Wisdom Literature (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, some Psalms) were completed earlier than the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. Finally rabbinical Aramaic Targums included all of the OT except Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Meanwhile, the Islamic conquest of the entire Middle East gave people a new common language, Arabic. Rabbis were apt to find themselves beginning to produce informal oral Arabic targums, and Aramaic faded from the synagogue into religious history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CompleteBibleVersionsofChristendom\">Complete Bible Versions of Christendom<\/p>\n<p>As the church gathered the NT together and added it to the Old, there began the process of Bible translation that has marked the growth of Christianity from Jerusalem through Judea to Samaria and on toward the “uttermost part” of the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LatinVersions\">Latin Versions<\/p>\n<p>Like the Aramaic Targums of Jewish worshipers, the Old Latin Bible was an informal growth. In the early days of the Roman Empire and of the church, Greek was the language of Christians. Even the first bishops of Rome wrote and preached in Greek. As empire and church aged, Latin began to win out, especially in the West. It was natural that priests and bishops began informally to translate the Greek NT and Septuagint into Latin. The initial Latin version is called the Old Latin Bible. No complete manuscript of it survives. Much of the OT and most of the New, however, can be reconstructed from quotations of the early church fathers. Scholars believe that an Old Latin Bible was in circulation in Carthage in North Africa as early as <span>AD<\/span> 250. From the surviving fragments and quotations there seem to have been two types of Old Latin text, the African and the European. The European existed in an Italian revision also. In textual study the major importance of the Old Latin is in comparative study of the Septuagint because the Old Latin was translated from the Septuagint before Origen made his <em>Hexapla.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>From every quarter, church leaders voiced the need for an authoritative and uniform Latin translation of the whole Bible. Pope Damascus I (366–384) had an exceptionally able and scholarly secretary named Jerome (c. 340–420), whom he commissioned to make a new Latin translation of the Gospels in 382. Jerome completed the Gospels in 383; Acts and the rest of the NT evidently followed. The Gospels were a thorough and painstaking retranslation based on the European Old Latin and an Alexandrian Greek text. The rest of the NT, however, was a much more limited effort with the Old Latin remaining dominant unless the Greek text demanded change. In all probability it was not the work of Jerome himself.<\/p>\n<p>Jerome left Rome in 385, and in 389 he and a follower, Paula, founded two religious houses near Bethlehem. At one of these Jerome presided. There he turned his attention to the OT. He realized that what was needed was a retranslation from the Hebrew, not a revision of the Greek Septuagint. He used Jewish rabbis as consultants and completed work through the books of Kings by 390. Jerome reworked an earlier translation he had made of the Psalms and completed the prophets, Job, Ezra, and Chronicles in 390–96. After a two-year illness, he picked up the task again and translated Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. In 404 he worked through Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Esther. Soon afterward he did the apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther and translated the apocryphal Tobit and Judith from Aramaic. He did not touch the Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, or the Maccabean literature, so those apocryphal books passed into the official Latin Bible in their Old Latin form. Jerome’s work was not uniform in quality, nor did he gather it all together into a unified Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Jerome’s work was fiercely criticized, and though he defended it with facile pen and ready temper, he did not live long enough to see it win universal respect. Yet his life’s work passed into what is now known as the Vulgate Bible (<em>vulga<\/em> meaning the “vulgar,” or everyday, speech of the people). Evidence seems to indicate that the compiling of all of Jerome’s work into one book may have been done by Cassiodorus (died c. 580) in his monastery at Scylacium in Italy. The earliest extant manuscript containing Jerome’s Bible in its entirety is the Codex Amiatinus written in the monastery at Jarrow, Northumbria, England, around 715. The old texts of the Vulgate are second only to the Septuagint in importance for Hebrew textual study, for Jerome was working from Hebrew texts that antedated the work of the Jewish Masoretes.<\/p>\n<p>Only very gradually did the Vulgate supplant the Old Latin Bible. It took 1,000 years before the Vulgate was made the official Roman Catholic Bible (by the Council of Trent in 1546). That council also authorized an official, corrected edition, which was first issued by Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) in 1590 in three volumes. It proved unpopular, however, and Pope Clement VIII (1592–1605) recalled it and issued a new official Vulgate in 1592, which has been the standard edition to recent times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CopticVersions\">Coptic Versions<\/p>\n<p>Coptic was the last stage of the Egyptian language and thus the language of the native populations who lived along the length of the Nile River. It was never supplanted by the Greek of Alexander and his generals or even threatened by the Latin of the Caesars. Its script was composed of 25 Greek uncials and 7 cursives taken over from Egyptian writing to express sounds not in the Greek. Through the centuries it developed at least five main dialects: Akhmimic, sub-Akhmimic (Memphitic), Sahidic, Fayumic, and Bohairic. Fragments of biblical material have been found in the Akhmimic, sub-Akhmimic, and Fayumic. No one knows whether or not the whole Bible ever existed in these dialects. They gradually faded out of use until—by the 11th century—only Bohairic, the language of the Delta, and Sahidic, the language of Upper Egypt, remained. They too, however, had become largely forgotten or strictly religious languages used only in Coptic churches by the 17th century because of the long dominance of Arabic that began with the Islamic conquest of Egypt in 641.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest translation was in Sahidic in Upper Egypt, where Greek was less universally understood. The Sahidic Old and New Testaments were probably completed by around <span>AD<\/span> 200. Greek was so much more dominant in the Delta that the translation of the Scriptures into Bohairic probably was not completed until somewhat later. Since Bohairic was the language of the Delta, however, it was also the language of the Coptic Patriarch in Alexandria. When the patriarchate moved from Alexandria to Cairo in the 11th century, the Bohairic texts went along. Bohairic gradually became the major religious language of the Coptic church. The Copts had separated from the Roman Empire, or the so-called Great Catholic Church, over doctrinal issues after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and had then been isolated from Western Christendom by centuries of Islamic rule.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GothicVersion\">Gothic Version<\/p>\n<p>The Gothic language was an East Germanic language. The earliest literary remains known in any Germanic tongue are the fragments of the Bible done by Ulfilas (or Wulfila), who made the translation to bring the gospel to his own people. Ulfilas (c. 311–83), one of the early church’s most famous missionaries, was born in Dacia of Roman Christian parents who had been captured by the raiding Goths. He traveled to Constantinople from his tribal area, and he may have been converted there. While in the East, he was ordained as bishop around 340 by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. Ulfilas himself was of the Arian persuasion (believing that Christ was Savior and Lord by divine appointment and by his obedience, but that he was less than God or was subservient to God).<\/p>\n<p>Ulfilas returned to preach to his people, evidently invented an alphabet for them in order to reduce their language to writing, and then translated the Scriptures into that written language. Records from that time say Ulfilas translated all of the Bible except the books of the Kings, which he excluded because he felt they would have an adverse influence on the Goths, who were already too warlike. Scattered fragments of his OT translation survive and only about half of the Gospels are preserved in the Codex Argenteus, a manuscript of Bohemian origin of the fifth or sixth century now at Uppsala in Sweden.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SyriacVersions\">Syriac Versions<\/p>\n<p>One of the family of Semitic languages, Syriac was the predominant tongue of the region of Edessa and western Mesopotamia. The version known today as the <em>Peshitta<\/em> Bible (still the official Bible of Christians of the old Assyrian area churches and often lacking 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation) developed through several stages. One of the most famous and widely used translations in the early church was the Syriac <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> done by Tatian, a man who had been a disciple of Justin Martyr at Rome. The <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels translated from the Greek about <span>AD<\/span> 170, was very popular among Syriac-speaking Christians. Syrian bishops had an uphill battle getting Christians to use “The Gospel of the Separated Ones” (meaning the manuscript in which the four Gospels were separated from one another rather than blended) in their churches.<\/p>\n<p>Other portions of the Bible were also put into Old Syriac. Quotations from the church fathers indicate that some type of second-century Old Syriac text existed along with the <em>Diatessaron.<\/em> In fact, the OT may have been a Jewish translation into Syriac that Syrian Christians made their own, just as Greek Christians had done with the Septuagint. It then underwent a more or less official revision around the end of the fourth century, emerging as the <em>Peshitta<\/em> (meaning “basic” or “simple”) text. Tradition indicates that at least the NT portion of that version may have been made at the instigation of Rabbula, bishop of Edessa (411–35).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, Syrian-speaking Christians underwent a schism in <span>AD<\/span> 431 when the Monophysite (or Jacobite) groups split off from the Nestorian believers (the battle was over the view of the Person of Christ). For a time both groups used the <em>Peshitta<\/em>, but the Jacobite groups began to desire a new translation. Working from the Septuagint and Greek NT manuscripts, Bishop Philoxemus (or Mar Zenaia) of Mabbug (485–519) on the Euphrates River did a new Syriac translation that was completed in 508. The importance of that version was that it included for the first time 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, which then made their way into the standard <em>Peshitta<\/em> text.<\/p>\n<p>Though the <em>Peshitta<\/em> has been in continuous use since the fifth century, and reached as far as India and China in its distribution, it has not been nearly so important a source for textual scholars as the Septuagint. That is because it had undergone constant revision through comparison with various Greek texts at Constantinople, Hebrew texts, Origen’s <em>Hexapla<\/em> Septuagint, and the Aramaic Targums; therefore, its witness to an early textual source is very difficult to trace. One of the most valuable <em>Peshitta<\/em> manuscripts extant is the Codex Ambrosianus of Milan, which dates from the sixth century and contains the entire OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArmenianVersion\">Armenian Version<\/p>\n<p>Syrian Christians carried their faith to their Armenian neighbors in eastern Asia Minor. As early as the third century, with the conversion of Tiridates III (reigned 259–314), Armenia became a Christian kingdom—the first such in history. Sometime during the fifth century, an Armenian alphabet was created so that the Bible could be translated into the language of these new believers. The Armenian translation is considered one of the most beautiful and accurate of the ancient versions of the Greek, even though textual evidence indicates it may have been done from the Syriac first and then modified to the Greek. (The Armenian language is allied closely with the Greek in grammar, syntax, and idiom.) An old tradition says that the NT was the work of Mesrop (a bishop in Armenia, 390–439) who is credited with inventing both the Armenian and Georgian alphabets. The book of Revelation was not accepted as part of the canon in Armenian churches until as late as the 12th century.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GeorgianVersion\">Georgian Version<\/p>\n<p>The same tradition that credits Mesrop with translating the Bible into Armenian also credits an Armenian slave woman with being the missionary through whom Georgian-speaking people became Christian. The earliest manuscripts for the Georgian Scriptures go back only to the eighth century, but behind them is a Georgian translation with Syriac and Armenian traces. Evidently the Gospels first came in the form of the <em>Diatessaron;<\/em> therefore, Georgian fragments are important in the study of that text. There is a whole manuscript copy of the Georgian Bible in two volumes in the Iberian Monastery on Mt Athos.<\/p>\n<p>Along with the Armenians and Georgians, a third Caucasian people, the Albanians, apparently received an alphabet from Mesrop for the purpose of scriptural translation. Their church, however, was wiped out by the Islamic wars and no remains of that version have ever been found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EthiopicVersion\">Ethiopic Version<\/p>\n<p>By the middle of the fifth century, a Christian king ruled in Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and until the Islamic conquests close ties were maintained with Egyptian Christianity. The OT was probably translated into Old Ethiopic (called Ge’ez) by the fourth century. That version is of special interest for two reasons. It is the Bible of the Falashas, that remarkable community of African Jews who claim to be descendants of Jews who migrated to Ethiopia in the time of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Further, the Old Ethiopic version of the OT contains several books not in the Hebrew Apocrypha. Most interesting of these is the book of Enoch, which is quoted in Jude 1:14 and was unknown to Bible scholars until James Bruce brought a copy to Europe in 1773. The apocryphal 3 Baruch is known only from the Ethiopic also.<\/p>\n<p>The NT was translated into Old Ethiopic somewhat later than the OT and contains a collection of writings mentioned by Clement of Alexandria, including the Apocalypse of Peter. Both Testaments are extant in Ethiopic manuscripts. None, however, is earlier than the 13th century, and these manuscripts seem to rest rather heavily on the Coptic and the Arabic. Nothing survived the total chaos that reigned in Ethiopia from the 7th to the 13th centuries. Because they are so late, the Ethiopic manuscripts have had little value for textual study.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicVersions\">Arabic Versions<\/p>\n<p>Around <span>AD<\/span> 570 Muhammad was born in Mecca. At the age of 25 he married a wealthy widow, Khadijah. His “call” came at the age of 40. In 622 the “Hegira” to Medina took place. In 632 he died, the undisputed master prophet of Arabia. Within a hundred years, Islamic domains stretched from the Pyrenees through Spain, jumped the Gibraltar Strait, embraced all of North Africa, and captured Egypt and the Bible lands. Thus began a relentless pressure on Byzantium that culminated in the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Eventually, the Islamic conquest extended to lands as far east as India. Arabic became the most universal language the world had seen since Alexander had spread Greek over nine centuries earlier.<\/p>\n<p>There were a number of strong Jewish communities in Arabia in the time of Muhammad, and the vast conquests engulfed hundreds of Christian communities, a few of which stubbornly survived. Yet the Bible in Arabic evidently did not come into existence until the work of Saadya Gaon. Saadya was born in the Fayum in Upper Egypt in 892 and died in Babylon in 942. He translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew. Other parts of the OT followed—Joshua from the Hebrew; Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Job from the <em>Peshitta<\/em><em>;<\/em> and the Prophets, Psalms, and Proverbs from the Septuagint—not necessarily the work of Saadya. The resulting version has been used by Arabic-speaking Jews down to this century. The Qara’ites, disapproving of Saadya’s rather free work, made rival translations, the most notable that of Japheth ben-Eli-ha-Levi in the tenth century. NT translations into Arabic sprang up from Syriac, Greek, and Coptic sources in the seventh to the ninth centuries. Arab writers say that John I, a Jacobite patriarch of Antioch (631–48), translated the Gospels from Syriac into Arabic. Another John, Bishop of Seville in Spain, is said to have produced Arabic Gospels from the Vulgate around 724. The final form of the Arabic NT rested most heavily on the Coptic Bohairic. Because of their late date and mixed background, Arabic texts have had little importance in textual studies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SlavonicVersion\">Slavonic Version<\/p>\n<p>Though the Slavs were one of the great ethnic groups contiguous to the centers of early Christianity, Bible translations into Slavonic cannot be traced earlier than the ninth century. Two brothers, Constantine and Methodius, sons of a Greek nobleman, began by putting church liturgy into Slavonic. With the approval of popes Adrian II and John VIII (as noted above), they translated the Bible. Constantine (who later changed his name to Cyril, 827–69) and Methodius (826–85) worked among the Slavs and Moravians. Constantine (Cyril) invented the alphabet that bears his saint name—Cyrillic—to facilitate the translation. Manuscript portions from the 10th or 11th centuries survive, but the oldest manuscript of the whole Bible is the Codex Gennadius in Moscow, which is dated 1499 and is too late to be of much value for textual study.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, V<span>ersions of the (Ancient<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>To get a picture of how the Bible has come to different peoples in the world, spread out a map of the eastern hemisphere and imagine Palestine as the center of a pool. Think of God’s revelation of himself through the prophets, the Christ, and the apostles as a pebble dropped into the center of that body of water. In your mind’s eye watch the advance of the concentric circles out across that world pool from Palestine and call out the languages covered by the fast-spreading ripple: to the south, Coptic, Arabic, Ethiopic; to the west, Greek, Latin, Gothic, English; to the north, Armenian, Georgian, Slavonic; and eastward toward the rising sun, Syriac. The farther the Bible moved from its Hebrew\/Aramaic\/Greek center in Palestine, the later the date of its translation into yet another language.<\/p>\n<p>That pebble of God’s revelation, the Bible, was produced in the Middle East predominantly in two of Palestine’s languages. The OT was written in Hebrew with the exception of portions of the books of Daniel and Ezra, which may have been written in Aramaic, the language of the Captivity. Probably the entire NT was written in common Greek (koine), which was the dominant language of the eastern half of Caesar’s domain and understood almost everywhere else in the Roman Empire. Therefore every person who did not speak Hebrew or Greek was apt to remain untouched by God’s written revelation until someone translated the Bible into his language.<\/p>\n<p>The process of Bible translation began even before the birth of Christ, with translations of the OT being made into Greek and Aramaic. Many of the dispersed Jews who lived prior to the coming of Christ did not know Hebrew and therefore required a translation in Greek or Aramaic. The most popular Greek translation of the OT was the Septuagint. It was used by many Jews, and then by many Christians. In fact, the Septuagint was the “Bible” for all the first-generation Christians, including those who wrote various books of the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The early Christian missionaries carrying a text of the Septuagint (or Hebrew Bible) and the Greek NT (or portions thereof), which they themselves could read, moved ever outward from those early churches at Jerusalem and Antioch about which we read in the book of Acts. They moved out among peoples whose language they learned to speak. Such missionaries orally translated or paraphrased Bible passages necessary for instruction, preaching, and liturgy. Converts were made. New churches sprang up. Feeling an urgent need for the Bible to be put in the language of the new believers, missionaries would soon set about translating the whole Bible into their language. The impulse behind our modern Wycliffe Bible Translators has always been at the heart of missions, and in that way the major Bible versions were born.<\/p>\n<p>Bible translation was thus spontaneous, invariably informal and oral at first, and sharply evangelistic in its motivation. The early church enthusiastically encouraged and undertook translating efforts. Even as late as the birth of the Slavonic version in the mid-ninth century, popes Adrian II (867–72) and John VIII (872–82) endorsed the project. But an amazing change came in the Western church in regard to Bible translation. Latin took over as the dominant language—such that no one read Greek anymore. Then, as learning became the province of only the wealthy nobility and prelates (churchmen of high rank, such as bishops), as the splendors of classical civilization were lost in the ferment of feudalism in Europe, and as the Roman Catholic hierarchy—headed by the pope—claimed a firm grip on Western Christendom, the Bible was removed from the hands of the laity. Therefore, as long as the priests could read the Latin texts and speak the liturgy in Latin (at least at a minimal level), there was no longer significant motivation for translations into the vernacular.<\/p>\n<p>Latin came to be considered almost a sacred language, and translations of the Bible into the vernacular were viewed with suspicion. Pope Gregory VII (1073–85) gave voice to such suspicions when, only 200 years after Adrian II and John VIII had called for a Slavonic translation, Gregory attempted to stop its circulation. He wrote to King Vratislaus of Bohemia in 1079:<\/p>\n<p>For it is clear to those who reflect upon it that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile in Palestine and northern Africa, the inexorable march of Islam changed the religious texture of the Mediterranean’s eastern and southern littorals. Within 100 years of Muhammad’s death (570–632), over 900 churches had been destroyed and the Koran became the “bible” in the great circle from the walls of embattled Byzantium round to the west—to the Spanish end of Europe.<\/p>\n<p>Cramped by official opposition in the West and hindered by Islamic conquest in the Middle East, Bible translations slowed to a trickle for half a millennium. Translation efforts did not regain vitality until the Protestant Reformation of the early 16th century, at which time missionaries took advantage of movable-type printing (invented by Johannes Gutenberg) to produce multiple translations of the Bible. Erasmus expressed the desire of all Bible translators in the preface of his freshly published Greek NT (1516):<\/p>\n<p>I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel—should read the Epistles of Paul. And I wish these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens. To make them understood is surely the first step. It may be that they might be ridiculed by many, but some would take them to heart. I long that the husbandman should sing portions of them to himself as he follows the plough, that the weaver should hum them to the tune of his shuttle, that the traveller should beguile with their stories the tedium of his journey.<\/p>\n<p>But what materials were used by the early translators and copyists who worked so painstakingly over their Bible translations? At the time of Christ and through the first two centuries of the church, the most popular writing materials were ink on papyrus. Until the first century, “books” were actually scrolls with long sheets of papyrus paper glued end to end and rolled up on paired spindles. Then, later in the first century, another form of a book was created—called the codex (the precursor to the modern form of a book with folded sheets and stitched spine). Christians were among the first to use this form for books. In <span>AD<\/span> 332 the first Christian emperor, Constantine I, ordered 50 Bibles for the churches of his new capital city, Constantinople. He ordered those from Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, and specified that they were not to be scrolls, but codexes (or codices). They were also to be not of papyrus but of vellum, carefully prepared sheep or antelope skins, for it was right about this time, in the late third and early fourth centuries, that codexes and vellum almost universally replaced scrolls and papyrus.<\/p>\n<p>For centuries scribes laboriously copied Bibles all in capital letters; the earliest surviving manuscripts of Bible versions are of that type, called “uncials.” In the ninth and tenth centuries it became the fashion to write in lowercase letters; surviving manuscripts of that type are called “minuscules” or “cursives.” (There were, however, occasional cursive manuscripts as far back as the second century before Christ.) Minuscules dominate the surviving biblical manuscripts from the 10th through the 16th centuries.<\/p>\n<p>It was in 1454 that Johannes Gutenberg made manuscript writing obsolete by using movable type for the first time. His first printed book appeared in 1456, a splendid Latin Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Our printed Bibles today contain chapter and verse divisions that were a relatively late development. Chapter divisions began in the Latin Vulgate and are variously credited to Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1089), to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), or to Hugo de Sancto Caro of the 13th century. Verse numbers first appeared in the fourth edition of the Greek NT issued at Geneva in 1551 by Robert Estienne (Stephanus) and in the Athias Hebrew OT of 1559–61.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Earliest Versions of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Complete Bible Versions of Christendom<\/p>\n<p>• Latin Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Coptic Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Gothic Version<\/p>\n<p>• Syriac Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Armenian Version<\/p>\n<p>• Georgian Version<\/p>\n<p>• Ethiopic Version<\/p>\n<p>• Arabic Versions<\/p>\n<p>• Slavonic Version<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarliestVersionsoftheOldTestament\">Earliest Versions of the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first version to be considered, the Samaritan Pentateuch, cannot rightly be termed a translation because it is a Hebrew version of the first five books of the OT, the books of the Law. These books comprise the total canon of Scripture for the Samaritan community, which still survives and is now centered in modern Nablus in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritan Pentateuch reflects a textual tradition different from that of traditional Judaism, whose Hebrew text goes back through the centuries to the work of the Masoretes. The Masoretes were a body of scribes charged with OT text preservation, beginning about <span>AD<\/span> 600 and extending to the first half of the 10th century. It was they who devised a pointing system to indicate the vowels missing from consonantal Hebrew. It is this so-called Masoretic Text that forms (as the “received text”) the basis for the King James Version OT.<\/p>\n<p>The Samaritan Pentateuch, on the other hand, goes back to the fourth century before Christ. According to textual scholars, the Samaritan Pentateuch differs from the “received” or Masoretic Hebrew text in about 6,000 places. About 1,000 of those differences need to be taken seriously. Where the text of the Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the Septuagint or one of the other ancient versions against the Hebrew of the Masoretic Text, its witness must be regarded as important. The two oldest manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch outside of Nablus are both codexes. One copy in the John Rylands Library in Manchester, England, bears a date corresponding to <span>AD<\/span> 1211 or 1212; the other is somewhat older than 1149 and is presently in the University Library at Cambridge, England. Two minor translations of the Samaritan Pentateuch also exist; one is the Aramaic Samaritan Targum from early Christian times, the other an Arabic translation from about the 11th century.<\/p>\n<p>The second OT version, the Septuagint, is an actual translation from the Hebrew into the Greek. It is the first translation of the OT known. It was the Bible used by the apostles, the version from which most OT quotations in the NT come, and the Bible of the early church as far as the OT was concerned.<\/p>\n<p>The story of its production, from which it draws its name, is told in “The Letter of Aristeas” (written around 150–100 <span>BC<\/span>). Aristeas purportedly was an official of Egypt’s Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–247 <span>BC<\/span>). Ptolemy was attempting to gather all of the world’s books into his great Alexandrian library. The OT was not on hand in translation, the letter says, so Ptolemy sent to the high priest in Jerusalem for texts and scholars to translate. Texts and six elders of each tribe were sent. After being royally entertained by Ptolemy, these 72 elders were cloistered and in exactly 72 days produced the full Greek translation of the OT, called Septuagint (“Seventy”) and usually abbreviated LXX in Roman numerals.<\/p>\n<p>The truth of the matter is probably more prosaic. The Septuagint is a translation done for Hellenized Jews of the Diaspora who, no longer understanding Hebrew, wished to hear and teach the Bible in their language. Scholars argue over the date of the translation, placing portions as early as 250 <span>BC<\/span> and other parts as late as 100 <span>BC<\/span>. Most concur that it was translated in segments by many translators over a couple of centuries and then was gathered together into one library of scrolls or one codex. The Septuagint follows a different order from English Bibles and usually includes up to 15 apocryphal or noncanonical books.<\/p>\n<p>The third OT version is the Aramaic. Biblical Aramaic, called Chaldee up through the 19th century, was the language of the conquerors that gradually became the household speech of the conquered. When the Jewish exiles began to return to Palestine from Babylon in 536 <span>BC<\/span>, they brought Aramaic with them. Many scholars believe that when Ezra and the Levites “explained the meaning of the passage” as the Book of the Law was read (Neh 8:8), they were paraphrasing the Hebrew into Aramaic so all could understand. Aramaic remained as the living language in Palestine up to the Bar-Kochba revolt against the Romans (<span>AD<\/span> 132–135), and Hebrew became increasingly a religious language for synagogue and temple specialists. As priests and scribes read the Law and Prophets, the custom of following the reading with an Aramaic translation spread. Such translations were called targums.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbinical leadership was very loathe to formalize and write down the targums, but inevitably they were collected and standardized. The earliest standardized Targum was that of the Law done by someone known as Onkelos, sometime in the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. Targums on the historical and prophetic books were crystallized in the third and fourth centuries <span>AD<\/span>, with the most important one called the Targum Jonathan ben Uzziel. Evidently no Targums of the Wisdom Literature (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, some Psalms) were completed earlier than the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. Finally rabbinical Aramaic Targums included all of the OT except Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Meanwhile, the Islamic conquest of the entire Middle East gave people a new common language, Arabic. Rabbis were apt to find themselves beginning to produce informal oral Arabic targums, and Aramaic faded from the synagogue into religious history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CompleteBibleVersionsofChristendom\">Complete Bible Versions of Christendom<\/p>\n<p>As the church gathered the NT together and added it to the Old, there began the process of Bible translation that has marked the growth of Christianity from Jerusalem through Judea to Samaria and on toward the “uttermost part” of the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LatinVersions\">Latin Versions<\/p>\n<p>Like the Aramaic Targums of Jewish worshipers, the Old Latin Bible was an informal growth. In the early days of the Roman Empire and of the church, Greek was the language of Christians. Even the first bishops of Rome wrote and preached in Greek. As empire and church aged, Latin began to win out, especially in the West. It was natural that priests and bishops began informally to translate the Greek NT and Septuagint into Latin. The initial Latin version is called the Old Latin Bible. No complete manuscript of it survives. Much of the OT and most of the New, however, can be reconstructed from quotations of the early church fathers. Scholars believe that an Old Latin Bible was in circulation in Carthage in North Africa as early as <span>AD<\/span> 250. From the surviving fragments and quotations there seem to have been two types of Old Latin text, the African and the European. The European existed in an Italian revision also. In textual study the major importance of the Old Latin is in comparative study of the Septuagint because the Old Latin was translated from the Septuagint before Origen made his <em>Hexapla.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>From every quarter, church leaders voiced the need for an authoritative and uniform Latin translation of the whole Bible. Pope Damascus I (366–384) had an exceptionally able and scholarly secretary named Jerome (c. 340–420), whom he commissioned to make a new Latin translation of the Gospels in 382. Jerome completed the Gospels in 383; Acts and the rest of the NT evidently followed. The Gospels were a thorough and painstaking retranslation based on the European Old Latin and an Alexandrian Greek text. The rest of the NT, however, was a much more limited effort with the Old Latin remaining dominant unless the Greek text demanded change. In all probability it was not the work of Jerome himself.<\/p>\n<p>Jerome left Rome in 385, and in 389 he and a follower, Paula, founded two religious houses near Bethlehem. At one of these Jerome presided. There he turned his attention to the OT. He realized that what was needed was a retranslation from the Hebrew, not a revision of the Greek Septuagint. He used Jewish rabbis as consultants and completed work through the books of Kings by 390. Jerome reworked an earlier translation he had made of the Psalms and completed the prophets, Job, Ezra, and Chronicles in 390–96. After a two-year illness, he picked up the task again and translated Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. In 404 he worked through Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Esther. Soon afterward he did the apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther and translated the apocryphal Tobit and Judith from Aramaic. He did not touch the Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, or the Maccabean literature, so those apocryphal books passed into the official Latin Bible in their Old Latin form. Jerome’s work was not uniform in quality, nor did he gather it all together into a unified Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Jerome’s work was fiercely criticized, and though he defended it with facile pen and ready temper, he did not live long enough to see it win universal respect. Yet his life’s work passed into what is now known as the Vulgate Bible (<em>vulga<\/em> meaning the “vulgar,” or everyday, speech of the people). Evidence seems to indicate that the compiling of all of Jerome’s work into one book may have been done by Cassiodorus (died c. 580) in his monastery at Scylacium in Italy. The earliest extant manuscript containing Jerome’s Bible in its entirety is the Codex Amiatinus written in the monastery at Jarrow, Northumbria, England, around 715. The old texts of the Vulgate are second only to the Septuagint in importance for Hebrew textual study, for Jerome was working from Hebrew texts that antedated the work of the Jewish Masoretes.<\/p>\n<p>Only very gradually did the Vulgate supplant the Old Latin Bible. It took 1,000 years before the Vulgate was made the official Roman Catholic Bible (by the Council of Trent in 1546). That council also authorized an official, corrected edition, which was first issued by Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) in 1590 in three volumes. It proved unpopular, however, and Pope Clement VIII (1592–1605) recalled it and issued a new official Vulgate in 1592, which has been the standard edition to recent times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CopticVersions\">Coptic Versions<\/p>\n<p>Coptic was the last stage of the Egyptian language and thus the language of the native populations who lived along the length of the Nile River. It was never supplanted by the Greek of Alexander and his generals or even threatened by the Latin of the Caesars. Its script was composed of 25 Greek uncials and 7 cursives taken over from Egyptian writing to express sounds not in the Greek. Through the centuries it developed at least five main dialects: Akhmimic, sub-Akhmimic (Memphitic), Sahidic, Fayumic, and Bohairic. Fragments of biblical material have been found in the Akhmimic, sub-Akhmimic, and Fayumic. No one knows whether or not the whole Bible ever existed in these dialects. They gradually faded out of use until—by the 11th century—only Bohairic, the language of the Delta, and Sahidic, the language of Upper Egypt, remained. They too, however, had become largely forgotten or strictly religious languages used only in Coptic churches by the 17th century because of the long dominance of Arabic that began with the Islamic conquest of Egypt in 641.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest translation was in Sahidic in Upper Egypt, where Greek was less universally understood. The Sahidic Old and New Testaments were probably completed by around <span>AD<\/span> 200. Greek was so much more dominant in the Delta that the translation of the Scriptures into Bohairic probably was not completed until somewhat later. Since Bohairic was the language of the Delta, however, it was also the language of the Coptic Patriarch in Alexandria. When the patriarchate moved from Alexandria to Cairo in the 11th century, the Bohairic texts went along. Bohairic gradually became the major religious language of the Coptic church. The Copts had separated from the Roman Empire, or the so-called Great Catholic Church, over doctrinal issues after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and had then been isolated from Western Christendom by centuries of Islamic rule.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GothicVersion\">Gothic Version<\/p>\n<p>The Gothic language was an East Germanic language. The earliest literary remains known in any Germanic tongue are the fragments of the Bible done by Ulfilas (or Wulfila), who made the translation to bring the gospel to his own people. Ulfilas (c. 311–83), one of the early church’s most famous missionaries, was born in Dacia of Roman Christian parents who had been captured by the raiding Goths. He traveled to Constantinople from his tribal area, and he may have been converted there. While in the East, he was ordained as bishop around 340 by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. Ulfilas himself was of the Arian persuasion (believing that Christ was Savior and Lord by divine appointment and by his obedience, but that he was less than God or was subservient to God).<\/p>\n<p>Ulfilas returned to preach to his people, evidently invented an alphabet for them in order to reduce their language to writing, and then translated the Scriptures into that written language. Records from that time say Ulfilas translated all of the Bible except the books of the Kings, which he excluded because he felt they would have an adverse influence on the Goths, who were already too warlike. Scattered fragments of his OT translation survive and only about half of the Gospels are preserved in the Codex Argenteus, a manuscript of Bohemian origin of the fifth or sixth century now at Uppsala in Sweden.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SyriacVersions\">Syriac Versions<\/p>\n<p>One of the family of Semitic languages, Syriac was the predominant tongue of the region of Edessa and western Mesopotamia. The version known today as the <em>Peshitta<\/em> Bible (still the official Bible of Christians of the old Assyrian area churches and often lacking 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation) developed through several stages. One of the most famous and widely used translations in the early church was the Syriac <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> done by Tatian, a man who had been a disciple of Justin Martyr at Rome. The <em>Diatessaron,<\/em> Tatian’s harmony of the Gospels translated from the Greek about <span>AD<\/span> 170, was very popular among Syriac-speaking Christians. Syrian bishops had an uphill battle getting Christians to use “The Gospel of the Separated Ones” (meaning the manuscript in which the four Gospels were separated from one another rather than blended) in their churches.<\/p>\n<p>Other portions of the Bible were also put into Old Syriac. Quotations from the church fathers indicate that some type of second-century Old Syriac text existed along with the <em>Diatessaron.<\/em> In fact, the OT may have been a Jewish translation into Syriac that Syrian Christians made their own, just as Greek Christians had done with the Septuagint. It then underwent a more or less official revision around the end of the fourth century, emerging as the <em>Peshitta<\/em> (meaning “basic” or “simple”) text. Tradition indicates that at least the NT portion of that version may have been made at the instigation of Rabbula, bishop of Edessa (411–35).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, Syrian-speaking Christians underwent a schism in <span>AD<\/span> 431 when the Monophysite (or Jacobite) groups split off from the Nestorian believers (the battle was over the view of the Person of Christ). For a time both groups used the <em>Peshitta<\/em>, but the Jacobite groups began to desire a new translation. Working from the Septuagint and Greek NT manuscripts, Bishop Philoxemus (or Mar Zenaia) of Mabbug (485–519) on the Euphrates River did a new Syriac translation that was completed in 508. The importance of that version was that it included for the first time 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, which then made their way into the standard <em>Peshitta<\/em> text.<\/p>\n<p>Though the <em>Peshitta<\/em> has been in continuous use since the fifth century, and reached as far as India and China in its distribution, it has not been nearly so important a source for textual scholars as the Septuagint. That is because it had undergone constant revision through comparison with various Greek texts at Constantinople, Hebrew texts, Origen’s <em>Hexapla<\/em> Septuagint, and the Aramaic Targums; therefore, its witness to an early textual source is very difficult to trace. One of the most valuable <em>Peshitta<\/em> manuscripts extant is the Codex Ambrosianus of Milan, which dates from the sixth century and contains the entire OT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArmenianVersion\">Armenian Version<\/p>\n<p>Syrian Christians carried their faith to their Armenian neighbors in eastern Asia Minor. As early as the third century, with the conversion of Tiridates III (reigned 259–314), Armenia became a Christian kingdom—the first such in history. Sometime during the fifth century, an Armenian alphabet was created so that the Bible could be translated into the language of these new believers. The Armenian translation is considered one of the most beautiful and accurate of the ancient versions of the Greek, even though textual evidence indicates it may have been done from the Syriac first and then modified to the Greek. (The Armenian language is allied closely with the Greek in grammar, syntax, and idiom.) An old tradition says that the NT was the work of Mesrop (a bishop in Armenia, 390–439) who is credited with inventing both the Armenian and Georgian alphabets. The book of Revelation was not accepted as part of the canon in Armenian churches until as late as the 12th century.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GeorgianVersion\">Georgian Version<\/p>\n<p>The same tradition that credits Mesrop with translating the Bible into Armenian also credits an Armenian slave woman with being the missionary through whom Georgian-speaking people became Christian. The earliest manuscripts for the Georgian Scriptures go back only to the eighth century, but behind them is a Georgian translation with Syriac and Armenian traces. Evidently the Gospels first came in the form of the <em>Diatessaron;<\/em> therefore, Georgian fragments are important in the study of that text. There is a whole manuscript copy of the Georgian Bible in two volumes in the Iberian Monastery on Mt Athos.<\/p>\n<p>Along with the Armenians and Georgians, a third Caucasian people, the Albanians, apparently received an alphabet from Mesrop for the purpose of scriptural translation. Their church, however, was wiped out by the Islamic wars and no remains of that version have ever been found.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EthiopicVersion\">Ethiopic Version<\/p>\n<p>By the middle of the fifth century, a Christian king ruled in Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and until the Islamic conquests close ties were maintained with Egyptian Christianity. The OT was probably translated into Old Ethiopic (called Ge’ez) by the fourth century. That version is of special interest for two reasons. It is the Bible of the Falashas, that remarkable community of African Jews who claim to be descendants of Jews who migrated to Ethiopia in the time of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Further, the Old Ethiopic version of the OT contains several books not in the Hebrew Apocrypha. Most interesting of these is the book of Enoch, which is quoted in Jude 1:14 and was unknown to Bible scholars until James Bruce brought a copy to Europe in 1773. The apocryphal 3 Baruch is known only from the Ethiopic also.<\/p>\n<p>The NT was translated into Old Ethiopic somewhat later than the OT and contains a collection of writings mentioned by Clement of Alexandria, including the Apocalypse of Peter. Both Testaments are extant in Ethiopic manuscripts. None, however, is earlier than the 13th century, and these manuscripts seem to rest rather heavily on the Coptic and the Arabic. Nothing survived the total chaos that reigned in Ethiopia from the 7th to the 13th centuries. Because they are so late, the Ethiopic manuscripts have had little value for textual study.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicVersions\">Arabic Versions<\/p>\n<p>Around <span>AD<\/span> 570 Muhammad was born in Mecca. At the age of 25 he married a wealthy widow, Khadijah. His “call” came at the age of 40. In 622 the “Hegira” to Medina took place. In 632 he died, the undisputed master prophet of Arabia. Within a hundred years, Islamic domains stretched from the Pyrenees through Spain, jumped the Gibraltar Strait, embraced all of North Africa, and captured Egypt and the Bible lands. Thus began a relentless pressure on Byzantium that culminated in the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Eventually, the Islamic conquest extended to lands as far east as India. Arabic became the most universal language the world had seen since Alexander had spread Greek over nine centuries earlier.<\/p>\n<p>There were a number of strong Jewish communities in Arabia in the time of Muhammad, and the vast conquests engulfed hundreds of Christian communities, a few of which stubbornly survived. Yet the Bible in Arabic evidently did not come into existence until the work of Saadya Gaon. Saadya was born in the Fayum in Upper Egypt in 892 and died in Babylon in 942. He translated the Pentateuch from the Hebrew. Other parts of the OT followed—Joshua from the Hebrew; Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Job from the <em>Peshitta<\/em><em>;<\/em> and the Prophets, Psalms, and Proverbs from the Septuagint—not necessarily the work of Saadya. The resulting version has been used by Arabic-speaking Jews down to this century. The Qara’ites, disapproving of Saadya’s rather free work, made rival translations, the most notable that of Japheth ben-Eli-ha-Levi in the tenth century. NT translations into Arabic sprang up from Syriac, Greek, and Coptic sources in the seventh to the ninth centuries. Arab writers say that John I, a Jacobite patriarch of Antioch (631–48), translated the Gospels from Syriac into Arabic. Another John, Bishop of Seville in Spain, is said to have produced Arabic Gospels from the Vulgate around 724. The final form of the Arabic NT rested most heavily on the Coptic Bohairic. Because of their late date and mixed background, Arabic texts have had little importance in textual studies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SlavonicVersion\">Slavonic Version<\/p>\n<p>Though the Slavs were one of the great ethnic groups contiguous to the centers of early Christianity, Bible translations into Slavonic cannot be traced earlier than the ninth century. Two brothers, Constantine and Methodius, sons of a Greek nobleman, began by putting church liturgy into Slavonic. With the approval of popes Adrian II and John VIII (as noted above), they translated the Bible. Constantine (who later changed his name to Cyril, 827–69) and Methodius (826–85) worked among the Slavs and Moravians. Constantine (Cyril) invented the alphabet that bears his saint name—Cyrillic—to facilitate the translation. Manuscript portions from the 10th or 11th centuries survive, but the oldest manuscript of the whole Bible is the Codex Gennadius in Moscow, which is dated 1499 and is too late to be of much value for textual study.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Versions of the (Ancient) To get a picture of how the Bible has come to different peoples in the world, spread out a map of the eastern hemisphere and imagine Palestine as the center of a pool. Think of God’s revelation of himself through the prophets, the Christ, and the apostles as a pebble dropped into the center of that body of water. In your mind’s eye watch the advance of the concentric circles out across that world pool from Palestine and call out the languages covered by the f...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Versions of the (Ancient) To get a picture of how the Bible has come to different peoples in the world, spread out a map of the eastern hemisphere and imagine Palestine as the center of a pool. Think of God’s revelation of himself through the prophets, the Christ, and the apostles as a pebble dropped into the center of that body of water. In your mind’s eye watch the advance of the concentric circles out across that world pool from Palestine and call out the languages covered by the f...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17662,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Interpreter","title_en":"Interpreter","content_ro":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\n<p>One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\n<p>One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","summary_en":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36766,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Targum*","title_en":"Targum*","content_ro":"<h3>TARGUM*<\/h3>\n<p>An Aramaic translation of the OT. While technically this Hebrew word may be used to refer to any translation, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">targum<\/span> commonly designates an Aramaic paraphrase or interpretive translation of a portion of the OT. Targums were of inestimable importance in the development of ancient Judaism. Jewish tradition holds that oral targums were extant in the time of Ezra; Nehemiah 8:8 is cited as supportive evidence.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the Babylonian exile (seven centuries before Christ), the language of the Jews was Hebrew. During the Captivity, Aramaic (the native tongue of the Babylonians) gradually replaced Hebrew as the language for the average Israelite. It thus became a practical necessity for Jewish scholars to translate the Scriptures into Aramaic. In the synagogue, a reading of an excerpt from the Law would be immediately followed by an oral translation of it. Eventually these translations or paraphrases were committed to writings, many of which still survive. The earliest known manuscript of a Targum is of the book of Job. Found in a cave of the Qumran community, it antedates the time of Christ by more than a century. The most important Targums are Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathon, in circulation by the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The former is a literal rendering of the Pentateuch; the latter is a freer interpretive version of the Prophets.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TARGUM*<\/h3>\n<p>An Aramaic translation of the OT. While technically this Hebrew word may be used to refer to any translation, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">targum<\/span> commonly designates an Aramaic paraphrase or interpretive translation of a portion of the OT. Targums were of inestimable importance in the development of ancient Judaism. Jewish tradition holds that oral targums were extant in the time of Ezra; Nehemiah 8:8 is cited as supportive evidence.<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the Babylonian exile (seven centuries before Christ), the language of the Jews was Hebrew. During the Captivity, Aramaic (the native tongue of the Babylonians) gradually replaced Hebrew as the language for the average Israelite. It thus became a practical necessity for Jewish scholars to translate the Scriptures into Aramaic. In the synagogue, a reading of an excerpt from the Law would be immediately followed by an oral translation of it. Eventually these translations or paraphrases were committed to writings, many of which still survive. The earliest known manuscript of a Targum is of the book of Job. Found in a cave of the Qumran community, it antedates the time of Christ by more than a century. The most important Targums are Targum Onkelos and Targum Jonathon, in circulation by the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>. The former is a literal rendering of the Pentateuch; the latter is a freer interpretive version of the Prophets.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TARGUM* An Aramaic translation of the OT. While technically this Hebrew word may be used to refer to any translation, targum commonly designates an Aramaic paraphrase or interpretive translation of a portion of the OT. Targums were of inestimable importance in the development of ancient Judaism. Jewish tradition holds that oral targums were extant in the time of Ezra; Nehemiah 8:8 is cited as supportive evidence. At the time of the Babylonian exile (seven centuries before Christ), the languag...","summary_en":"TARGUM* An Aramaic translation of the OT. While technically this Hebrew word may be used to refer to any translation, targum commonly designates an Aramaic paraphrase or interpretive translation of a portion of the OT. Targums were of inestimable importance in the development of ancient Judaism. Jewish tradition holds that oral targums were extant in the time of Ezra; Nehemiah 8:8 is cited as supportive evidence. At the time of the Babylonian exile (seven centuries before Christ), the languag...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":41772,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41808,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69398,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69434,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97024,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97060,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124650,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124686,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nehemiah","title_en":"Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nehemiah<\/h3>\n<p>Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty.<\/p>\n<p>Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 <span>BC<\/span>). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked the king’s permission to return to Judea to help his people. The king responded favorably and made him governor of the province of Judea for twelve years to aid his fellow Jews and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh 1:1–2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, but he faced opposition from the inhabitants of the land. These people of mixed heritage were the ancestors of the New Testament Samaritans. Nehemiah showed great courage and skill as he successfully helped the people of Judea rebuild the walls that protected Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah had a strong personal faith, as seen by his prayers (Neh 1:4-11; 2:4) and his confidence in divine guidance and help (2:8, 18, 20). He also advocated economic justice: He rebuked a few rich Judeans who were exploiting a food shortage by exacting high interest from their poorer relatives, and he provided an example of better conduct (Neh 5).<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was vitally concerned about the people’s faithfulness, and he individually confronted men who had married pagan women (13:23-29). He had a strong interest in maintaining Temple worship, and he led the Jewish community to pledge support for Temple personnel and to provide offerings (10:32-39). He also reformed Sabbath observance (13:15-22).<\/p>\n<p>Although there were still problems at the end of his tenure in Jerusalem (see Neh 13), Nehemiah was an effective leader who restored a national and religious identity to the Jewish settlers in a period of political and economic weakness.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Neh 1:1–7:73; 8:9-10; 10:1–13:31<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","summary_en":"Nehemiah Nehemiah was a powerful leader of God’s people living in Judea following the Exile. Nehemiah improved the morale and strength of God’s people in the midst of difficulty. Before Nehemiah returned to Judea, he was cup-bearer to Persian king Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). The cup-bearer brought the king his wine (tasting it first to make sure it wasn’t poisoned) and was his trusted confidant and adviser. Nehemiah heard reports about Jerusalem’s sad state and, moved with compassion, he asked...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3209,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Attharates","title_en":"Attharates","content_ro":"<h3>ATTHARATES<\/h3>\n<p>Persian word meaning “governor” (Neh 8:9). “Attharates” is a corrupt form of the title Tirshatha, rendered as a proper name in a parallel verse in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 9:49). <em>See<\/em> Tirshatha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ATTHARATES<\/h3>\n<p>Persian word meaning “governor” (Neh 8:9). “Attharates” is a corrupt form of the title Tirshatha, rendered as a proper name in a parallel verse in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 9:49). <em>See<\/em> Tirshatha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ATTHARATES Persian word meaning “governor” (Neh 8:9). “Attharates” is a corrupt form of the title Tirshatha, rendered as a proper name in a parallel verse in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 9:49). See Tirshatha.","summary_en":"ATTHARATES Persian word meaning “governor” (Neh 8:9). “Attharates” is a corrupt form of the title Tirshatha, rendered as a proper name in a parallel verse in the Apocrypha (1 Esd 9:49). See Tirshatha.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11784,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ezra (Person)","title_en":"Ezra (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>EZRA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandments (Ezr 7:11-12; Jer 8:8). In the commission of the Persian king Artaxerxes to Ezra, the king described him as “priest” and “scribe” (Ezr 7:6-11). It was Ezra who began the traditional view of the scribe as a religious leader, a “bookman”; the view lasted until 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Scribes were qualified to teach and preach the Scriptures as well as interpret them, but by the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the scribe’s function was more specialized.<\/li>\n\n<p>As “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs” in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem about 458 <span>BC<\/span>, and on his return reported his findings. Little was done, however, until Nehemiah went to Jerusalem in 445. Once the city walls had been rebuilt, Ezra instituted a religious reformation in which the ancient Torah (the Law) was made the norm for Jewish life. He also demanded that Jews who had married foreigners must divorce them to maintain the Jewish purity the Torah required. Ezra set an example of piety and dedication through prayer and fasting, and this placed his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish commonwealth, making God’s Word and worship central features. The date and place of his death are unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of Ezrah in 1 Chronicles 4:17. <em>See<\/em> Ezrah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EZRA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandments (Ezr 7:11-12; Jer 8:8). In the commission of the Persian king Artaxerxes to Ezra, the king described him as “priest” and “scribe” (Ezr 7:6-11). It was Ezra who began the traditional view of the scribe as a religious leader, a “bookman”; the view lasted until 200 <span>BC<\/span>. Scribes were qualified to teach and preach the Scriptures as well as interpret them, but by the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the scribe’s function was more specialized.<\/li>\n\n<p>As “Secretary of State for Jewish Affairs” in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem about 458 <span>BC<\/span>, and on his return reported his findings. Little was done, however, until Nehemiah went to Jerusalem in 445. Once the city walls had been rebuilt, Ezra instituted a religious reformation in which the ancient Torah (the Law) was made the norm for Jewish life. He also demanded that Jews who had married foreigners must divorce them to maintain the Jewish purity the Torah required. Ezra set an example of piety and dedication through prayer and fasting, and this placed his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish commonwealth, making God’s Word and worship central features. The date and place of his death are unknown.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ezra, Book of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>\n<li>2. KJV rendering of Ezrah in 1 Chronicles 4:17. <em>See<\/em> Ezrah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"EZRA (Person) 1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandment...","summary_en":"EZRA (Person) 1. Religious reformer following Israel’s return from exile. Ezra’s genealogy (Ezr 7:1-5; cf. 1 Chr 6:3-15) places him in the high priestly Aaron-Zadok family line, which accounts for the importance of his scribal and priestly activities. He is called “priest” (Ezr 10:10, 16; Neh 8:2), “scribe” (Ezr 7:6; Neh 12:36), and “priest and scribe” (Ezr 7:11-12; Neh 8:9; 12:26). The OT scribe was not a mere copyist, as in Christ’s time, but a profound student of God’s laws and commandment...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27241,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Nehemiah","title_en":"Book of Nehemiah","content_ro":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEHEMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the last of the Jewish historical books.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Chronology<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>In 597 <span>BC<\/span> Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agriculture and commerce and in some instances acquired considerable wealth. The elders continued to function, prophets like Ezekiel ministered among the exiles, and resistance to religious apostasy was kept alive in the popular mind.<\/p>\n<p>With the appearance of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), the Jewish exiles’ prospects altered dramatically. Cyrus was a civilized and enlightened statesman, and within a short time after his conquest of Babylon, he issued an edict (Ezr 1:2-4) that granted the expatriates permission to return to their homeland. Two separate groups of exiles returned to Judah and built a new sanctuary in Jerusalem on the site of Solomon’s temple in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. Then, under King Artaxerxes I (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>), two separate groups returned from Babylon under Ezra (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah (445 <span>BC<\/span>), respectively. From this seedbed there sprang the theocratic people of Judah, the Jews, dedicated to the law of God, isolated from foreign influence, and centered in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah’s personal memoirs form a considerable portion of the book that bears his name. These memoirs reveal a man of nobility and piety, who was compassionate, prudent, and patriotic. He was a man of generosity and fidelity, political acumen, and religious zeal, of total dedication to God, outstanding organizational ability, and dynamic leadership. At the same time Nehemiah possessed a capacity for ruthlessness when confronting the sin and waywardness of his compatriots (Neh 5:1-13) and the intrigues of powerful non-Jewish enemies (13:8, 28). Not surprisingly, then, a dispirited and dejected people awoke from their lethargic and apathetic state and responded to Nehemiah’s stringent approach to their situation (2:4; 13:14, 22, 31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalAuthenticity\">Historical Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>According to Josephus and other early writers, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah formed one book in the early Hebrew Bible entitled the book of Ezra. The earliest Hebrew manuscript in which the two books are divided is dated 1448, and modern Hebrew Bibles refer to them as the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. In manuscripts of the Greek OT (LXX) they also formed one book. Origen, in the beginning of the third century, is the first to attest to a division. There is general acknowledgment of the genuineness of the personal memoirs of Nehemiah, which constitute a major part of the book.<\/p>\n<p>The historical framework of the book is confirmed by papyri that were discovered between 1898 and 1908 in Elephantine, an island in the upper Nile. Here Psammetichus II (593–588 <span>BC<\/span>) established a Jewish colony. The Elephantine papyri are well preserved, written in Aramaic, and are the fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> literary remains of this Jewish colony of the Persian period.<\/p>\n<p>The most important item among the papyri is a copy of a letter sent to the Persian governor of Judah in 407 <span>BC<\/span>. Three years earlier the Jewish temple in Elephantine had been destroyed. This disaster was the occasion of a letter to Jehohanan, the high priest in Jerusalem (see Neh 12:12-13). Now, in their letter to the governor in Judah, they asked permission to rebuild their temple and said that they had sent a similar request to Delaiah and Shelamiah, the sons of Sanballat (Nehemiah’s enemy, 2:10, 19; 4:1). The Elephantine papyri reveal that Sanballat was governor of the province of Samaria and that Tobiah was governor of the province of Ammon in Transjordan (2:10, 19). Here, then, is evidence that there was in Judah a twofold authority, civil and religious, and that the high priest of 408–407 <span>BC<\/span> was Jehohanan (12:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chronology\">Chronology<\/p>\n<p>The question about whether Ezra or Nehemiah came to Jerusalem first has been hotly debated. There is no doubt that Nehemiah arrived in the city in 445 <span>BC<\/span>. The objections to the view that Ezra came to Jerusalem 13 years earlier, in 458 <span>BC<\/span>, raise questions concerning historical and textual data that are of such complexity as to preclude discussion of them here. However, achieving an understanding of the spiritual values of the book does not depend on a correct interpretation of the details of chronology. Arguments against the traditional chronology are neither altogether decisive, nor do they dispel the inherent complexities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, Judah had neither nationhood nor political status. Only one thing remained to them: their religion. They were the “remnant” of Yahweh’s chosen people, from whom would rise the new and glorious Israel. It was this vision that explains Nehemiah’s insistence that the Jewish people maintain the purity and exclusiveness of their religious faith and practice in order to rejuvenate their national life and rebuild the city walls (6:15), because this symbolized the racial and the religious purity of the people. He also insisted on separation from paganism, prohibition of marriage with non-Jews (13:23-28), and careful observance of the laws of the Sabbath (vv 15-22).<\/p>\n<p>It is, therefore, difficult to exaggerate the significance of the book of Nehemiah. Along with the book of Ezra, it furnishes the only consecutive Hebrew account of that period in Jewish history when the foundations of Judaism—with its inflexible segregation of the Jews and its passionate veneration of the Mosaic law—were laid. Of course, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi also contribute to knowledge of the period, but Nehemiah (with Ezra) provides a progressive narrative of this epoch. The return of the expatriates from Babylon to Jerusalem constitutes a resumption of the saving purposes of God for his ancient people, leading to the advent of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The account of the return from Babylon under Nehemiah emphasizes the religious aspect of the community of repatriates in Jerusalem. But other, secondary factors should be noted: Nehemiah’s preoccupation with Judah’s political security and constitutional status to ensure its independence of Samaria; the rebuilding of the city walls; Nehemiah’s resettlements of population (7:4; 11:1-2); and his appointment to the governorship of the new province. However, there is no reference in the book of Nehemiah (or for that matter in Ezra) to a restoration to nationhood under a scion of the house of David—no mention of a Messiah, no allusion to the universal kingdom of God. Nehemiah manifests absolute loyalty to the Persian overlord who, while showing remarkable openness to Nehemiah’s request (2:4-9), still continues to levy taxes (5:4, 15).<\/p>\n<p>The repatriates retreated behind their city’s new walls and congregated around the second temple, completed in 516 <span>BC<\/span>. “The book of the law of Moses” (8:1), recognized by the Persian overlord as the law of the land of Judah, became central to Jewish devotion and worship. Judaism was the product of the restoration, which became both a protective barrier against, and a wall of separation from, the Gentiles. Religious institutions initiated during the Babylonian exile and transplanted to Jerusalem took deep and firm root: the synagogue where the Law and the Prophets were read and the prayers were offered; the scribes who worked with single-minded devotion; and the Sanhedrin that continued to serve the new theocracy.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish remnant of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> parallels the modern Christian church in that both share the challenge of spiritual reconstruction and renewal essential to God’s purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>In the winter of 445 <span>BC<\/span>, the Persian court was in Susa, the ancient capital of Elam (1:1). There Nehemiah occupied a position of honor and influence (2:1). From Jerusalem, a company of Judeans arrived, among them Nehemiah’s brother, whose description of conditions in Jerusalem horrified and grieved Nehemiah (1:2-4). Four months later, and after much prayer, he reached Jerusalem with an armed escort (1:5–2:11). After a three-day inspection of the situation, Nehemiah realized that rebuilding the walls would be his primary task (2:12–3:32).<\/p>\n<p>An outburst of new national spirit caused latent opposition to surface. Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem were powerful, resourceful, astute antagonists. Through ridicule and rumors, they insinuated that work on the walls was a form of rebellion against the king (2:19; 4:1-3, 7-14; 6:1-9). But Nehemiah countered every subterfuge and stratagem with prayer and with an adamant refusal to deviate from his goal. There was also hostility from traitors within the camp (6:10-19). Despite all opposition, Jerusalem’s walls were reconstructed (v 15) and rededicated amid enthusiastic celebration (12:27-43).<\/p>\n<p>The community’s response to the reading by Ezra, priest and scribe, of the law of Moses and to its interpretation by the Levites (8:1-8), was a complex response of sorrow for sin and rejoicing in God (vv 9-18); of fasting and prayer (9:1-37); of renewing the covenant (9:38–10:29); and of self-commitment to obey God’s commandments, ordinances, and statutes (10:30-39). Chapters 11 and 12 refer to various offices and duties, civil and religious, and the names of the people appointed to them. Then follows the decision to exclude all people of foreign descent from Judaism (13:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>At this juncture Nehemiah traveled to Susa to give an account of his stewardship; a further leave of absence being granted, he returned to Jerusalem to find that serious irregularities were again present. His enemy Tobiah and the priest Eliashib were embroiled (13:4-9); the people failed to provide the Levites with adequate maintenance (vv 10-14); the laws of the Sabbath were being violated (vv 15-22); and Jews were marrying non-Jews (vv 23-32). Due to the increase of intermarriage with foreigners, the offspring could not speak Hebrew (vv 23-25). The danger of assimilation was halted by enforcing a policy of exclusivism.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nehemiah ends rather abruptly with a description of his vigorous and ruthless handling of these deviations from the newly established principles and precepts of Judaism.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Ezra, Book of; Ezra (Person) #1; Israel, History of; Judaism; Nehemiah (Person) #3; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","summary_en":"NEHEMIAH, Book of One of the last of the Jewish historical books. Preview • Background • Author • Historical Authenticity • Chronology • Significance • Content Background In 597 BC Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon took away the first exiles from Jerusalem. In 586 BC the Babylonians returned, pillaged and burned the city and its temple, and took an estimated 60,000 to 80,000 Judeans into exile. The expatriates settled in various districts where they enjoyed a measure of freedom. They engaged in agric...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37400,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tirshatha*","title_en":"Tirshatha*","content_ro":"<h3>TIRSHATHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIRSHATHA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIRSHATHA* KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.","summary_en":"TIRSHATHA* KJV translation of a Hebrew word designating a title of authority with the connotation of “governor.” It is appended to Zerubbabel’s name (Ezr 2:63) and Nehemiah’s name (Neh 8:9; 10:1), both of whom held the office in Jerusalem during the postexilic period.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48206,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","summary_en":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75832,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","summary_en":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103458,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","summary_en":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131084,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:9-10<\/strong> <em>Ezra the priest and scribe:<\/em> See study note on Ezra 7:6. • <em>Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day:<\/em> God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","summary_en":"8:9-10 Ezra the priest and scribe: See study note on Ezra 7:6. • Don’t mourn or weep . . . today is a sacred day: God touched the people’s hearts, prompting them to regret their failures to keep God’s laws. While weeping is an appropriate response to sin (see Ezek 9:4; Luke 6:21), Ezra and Nehemiah encouraged the people to rejoice at what God had done. Because this New Year’s festival was to be a time of joy (Num 29:1-6), weeping would have destroyed the spirit of the day.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60565,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Priestly Blessing","title_en":"The Priestly Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","summary_en":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88191,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Priestly Blessing","title_en":"The Priestly Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","summary_en":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115817,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Priestly Blessing","title_en":"The Priestly Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","summary_en":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143443,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Priestly Blessing","title_en":"The Priestly Blessing","content_ro":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Priestly Blessing<\/h3>\n<p>The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant.<\/p>\n<p>The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the <span>Lord<\/span>” = <em>Yahweh;<\/em> see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. This benediction emphasizes the relationship between God and his people and helps them to remember the source of their blessings.<\/p>\n<p>Many Old Testament passages refer to blessings pronounced by God and by people (e.g., Gen 12:1-3; 27:1-40; Deut 7:12-15; 28:1-14). The Israelites needed God’s blessings—his help and favor—as they prepared to leave Sinai. Although the modern reader tends to think of a blessing in general terms, the Israelites in the wilderness must have understood it in terms of food, water, health, children, protection from enemies, and settlement in the Promised Land. Throughout the book of Numbers, God dealt with Israel through these down-to-earth concerns.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Israel through the good words of Aaron and his sons, the priests (Num 6:22-23). In addition to their work in the Tabernacle (and later the Temple), the priests played an important role in Israelite life. For example, the priests helped administer justice in the land (Deut 17:8-12) and assisted the king in his duties, according to a principle established in Deut 17:18-20. Eli the priest comforted Hannah and took an active role in the spiritual formation of young Samuel (1 Sam 1:1–3:21). The priests and Levites were active in Israel’s spiritual instruction (see, e.g., Deut 33:9-10; Neh 8:9-12; Mal 2:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>An important archaeological discovery draws attention to the significance of this ancient priestly blessing. In 1980, excavators recovered two small silver scrolls from a rock-cut tomb at Ketef Hinnom, southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem. Scholars date these small amulets to the late 600s or early 500s <span>BC<\/span>. When these delicate scrolls were unrolled through a lengthy and tedious process, they were found to contain the blessing from Num 6:24-26 in words that are very close to the text in the Hebrew Bible. In ancient times, such scrolls were sometimes worn as charms, similar in function to the <em>tefillin,<\/em> or “phylacteries” or “prayer boxes” (see Deut 6:8; Matt 23:5). These small scrolls are the earliest manuscripts of the biblical text and contain the earliest reference to <em>Yahweh,<\/em> the Old Testament name of God, found in Jerusalem. These artifacts point to the timeless appeal of this brief text.<\/p>\n<p>A number of New Testament letters end with a blessing spoken over the readers in a tone very similar to the priestly blessing of Numbers (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14; Heb 13:20-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:28; 9:1, 26-27; 12:1-3; 14:19-20; 28:1-4; 48:15-20; 49:25-26; Lev 9:22; Num 6:22-27; 24:1-9; Deut 10:8; 33:11-29; 1 Sam 2:20; 1 Kgs 8:55-65; 2 Chr 30:27; Pss 115:12-15; 128:1-6; Matt 5:3-11; Luke 11:27-28; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 6:23; 1 Thes 5:23-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","summary_en":"The Priestly Blessing The priestly blessing (Num 6:22-27) is one of the most familiar and best-loved passages in the Hebrew Bible. Through the centuries, worshipers have found comfort in its brief but profound lines. This famous text is simple and elegant. The priestly blessing invokes the Lord’s blessing by repeating his name in each appeal (“the Lord” = Yahweh; see study note on Exod 3:15). The repetition of God’s name reminds God’s people of his interest and involvement in their lives. Thi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":48207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","summary_en":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","summary_en":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","summary_en":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:10<\/strong> <em>Rich foods<\/em> such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • <em>Sweet drinks<\/em> referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to <em>share<\/em> with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","summary_en":"8:10 Rich foods such as meat were eaten only on a special occasion. • Sweet drinks referred to unfermented juice, in contrast to the vinegar of the common laborer (see Ruth 2:14). • It is right to share with those who have need (see Deut 15:11; Job 29:16; Prov 31:20; Matt 6:2-3; Acts 4:34-35).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":41776,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69402,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97028,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124654,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Ezra","title_en":"Ezra","content_ro":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ezra<\/h3>\n<p>Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 <span>BC<\/span>, bringing articles for the Temple and the mission of establishing God’s laws and the laws of Persia. One of his first reforms was to confront the sin of intermarriage with pagan neighbors (9:1–10:44). Later, after the city walls were rebuilt in 445 <span>BC<\/span> (Neh 6:15), Ezra led the community to obey God’s law more fully (Neh 8:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra honored God through his handling of finances. The Persian king trusted Ezra’s judgment and allowed him to ask for more money when needed (Ezra 7:15-20). Ezra gave others the responsibility for financial affairs whenever he could and required strict financial integrity (8:24-30). He identified certain financial resources as holy and belonging to God.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra humbled himself before God when the people began their journey (8:21-23), when he found out about the people’s unholy marriages (9:5-15), and when he gathered those required to divorce their pagan wives (10:6). He always recognized that God’s gracious hand—not his own ability or wisdom—enabled good things to happen (7:6, 9, 28; 8:18, 22, 31; 9:8-9). He studied and lived by God’s Word and taught others to follow what God revealed (7:10). He was a teacher and servant-leader, not a self-important official who lorded it over other people.<\/p>\n<p>Ezra’s piety and dedication, demonstrated through prayer and fasting, put his reforming zeal in proper spiritual perspective. He set the pattern for life in the postexilic Jewish community, making God’s Word and worship central priorities.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh 8:1-18; 12:1, 26, 36<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","summary_en":"Ezra Ezra was a priest and scribe of the high-priestly line of Zadok (Ezra 7:1-5, 11-12; cp. Neh 8:2, 9). He was a leader in Judah following the Jews’ return from exile. As a scribe, Ezra was not just a copyist but a disciplined student of God’s laws (Ezra 7:6) who was qualified to teach, preach, and interpret the Scriptures. As an important official who assisted the king with Jewish affairs in the Persian Empire, Ezra visited Jerusalem around 458 BC, bringing articles for the Temple and the ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12163,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":26719,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Myrtle","title_en":"Myrtle","content_ro":"<h3>MYRTLE<\/h3>\n<p>Evergreen shrub with small leaves and scented flowers (Neh 8:15; Is 41:19). <em>See<\/em> Plants.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MYRTLE<\/h3>\n<p>Evergreen shrub with small leaves and scented flowers (Neh 8:15; Is 41:19). <em>See<\/em> Plants.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MYRTLE Evergreen shrub with small leaves and scented flowers (Neh 8:15; Is 41:19). See Plants.","summary_en":"MYRTLE Evergreen shrub with small leaves and scented flowers (Neh 8:15; Is 41:19). See Plants.","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30664,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48208,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","summary_en":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75834,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","summary_en":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103460,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","summary_en":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131086,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:15","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:15<\/strong> <em>make shelters in which they would live during the festival:<\/em> The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","summary_en":"8:15 make shelters in which they would live during the festival: The Festival of Shelters commemorated that the people of Israel had lived in tents during their wilderness journey (Lev 23:33-43; see also Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":48209,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","summary_en":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75835,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","summary_en":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103461,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","summary_en":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:16<\/strong> <em>The Ephraim Gate<\/em> might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","summary_en":"8:16 The Ephraim Gate might have been located on the north side of Jerusalem, facing toward the territory of the tribe of Ephraim (see 12:39).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":19355,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshua (Person)","title_en":"Jeshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JESHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Jozadak was deported by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon (1 Chr 6:14-15). Jeshua, Jozadak’s successor as high priest, returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezr 2:2; Neh 7:7; 12:1). Upon arrival, he led his fellow priests in making the altar of God (Ezr 3:2; 5:2) and eventually headed up a construction program to rebuild the temple (3:8). Confirmed as God’s leader by Haggai and Zechariah (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2, 4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11), Jeshua (alternately “Joshua” in these passages) resolutely resisted attempts by adversaries to infiltrate his people and hinder the work on the temple (Ezr 4:3). Joiakim was Jeshua’s son and successor as high priest, serving in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh 12:12, 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. Descendant of Pahath-moab and the forefather of a family of Jews who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the Babylonian captivity (Ezr 2:6; Neh 7:11).<\/li>\n<li>5. Father of a family of Levites who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2:40; Neh 7:43; 12:8). He and his sons were responsible for overseeing the workmen building the temple (Ezr 3:9; this Jeshua may be identical with #3 above).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite and Jozabad’s father. Jozabad assisted Meremoth, Eleazar, and Noadiah with taking inventory of the temple’s precious metals and vessels during the days of Ezra (Ezr 8:33).<\/li>\n<li>7. Ezer’s father. Ezer was ruler of Mizpah, who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:19).<\/li>\n<li>8. Azaniah’s son and a leader of the Levites in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeshua assisted Ezra with teaching the people the law (Neh 8:7) and later set his seal on Ezra’s covenant (10:9).<\/li>\n<li>9. Alternate spelling of Joshua, the son of Nun, in Nehemiah 8:17. <em>See<\/em> Joshua (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","summary_en":"JESHUA (Person) 1. Levite and head of the ninth of 24 divisions of priests formed during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:11). He was perhaps the forefather of 973 descendants who returned with Zerubbabel to Judah following the exile (Ezr 2:36; Neh 7:39). 2. One of the Levites assisting Kore in the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15). 3. Son of Jozadak (alternately “Jehozadak”) the high priest. Joz...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20609,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joshua (Person)","title_en":"Joshua (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOSHUA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, <span>kjv<\/span> “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17).<\/li>\n<p>Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The <span>Lord<\/span> Is My Banner” (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land of Canaan, Joshua represented the tribe of Ephraim (Nm 13:8). At that time Joshua was called Hoshea, but Moses changed his name to Joshua (vv 8, 16). Joshua and Caleb were the only two spies to bring back an affirmative report concerning an Israelite invasion of the land (14:6-9). Consequently, of all the adult Israelite males to leave Egypt in the exodus, only these two crossed the Jordan River and entered the Promised Land (v 30).<\/p>\n<p>When the Lord announced to Moses his impending death, Moses asked about his successor, and the Lord appointed Joshua to that position (Nm 27:12-23). After the death of Moses on Mt Nebo, Joshua’s leadership was confirmed (34:17), and the Lord told Joshua to go over the Jordan and take the land (Jos 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>From the Transjordan, Joshua sent two men across the river to reconnoiter Jericho (ch 2). In Jericho they were concealed by Rahab and later safely made their way back to Joshua to report that the people of the land were fainthearted because of the Israelites (vv 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Israel had crossed the river, the Lord instructed Joshua to set up a circle of 12 stones at Gilgal to commemorate this passage (Jos 4:1-7). The Lord then commanded all of the males who had been born during the exodus to be circumcised (5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>While camped at Gilgal, near Jericho, Joshua was confronted by a man with a drawn sword. When Joshua challenged the man, he learned that it was the Lord, who told him to remove his shoes, for the ground was holy (Jos 5:13-15). The Lord gave Joshua directions for the destruction of Jericho; these were followed explicitly and the city fell (ch 6). The attack on Ai ended in temporary defeat, until the matter of Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (7:10-26). Then Ai was taken and destroyed.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua built an altar on Mt Ebal (Jos 8:30-32), and the blessings and curses were read, as commanded by God through Moses (Jos 8:33-35; cf. Dt 27–28).<\/p>\n<p>Because the Israelites failed to ask direction from the Lord (Jos 9:14), Joshua was tricked into making a covenant of peace with the Hivites of Gibeon. Joshua then reduced them to doing menial tasks in Israel (vv 21-27).<\/p>\n<p>The kings of the various Canaanite cities allied themselves against the Israelite threat (Jos 9:1-2) and a league of five Amorite cities (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon) attacked Gibeon (10:1-5). The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help; he responded quickly against this Amorite confederation and routed the Amorite forces. It was on this occasion that Joshua commanded the sun and the moon to stand still so that Israel could have more time to defeat these adversaries (vv 12-14). This victory was followed by a series of successful attacks on enemy towns (vv 28-43).<\/p>\n<p>A northern alliance headed by Jabin, king of Hazor, was the next opposition (Jos 11:1-5). The Lord assured Joshua of success, and the city of Hazor was taken and destroyed by fire (vv 6-15). Joshua 11:23 summarizes the conquest of the land, and chapter 12 enumerates the kings who were conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was now old, and the Lord told him that much land remained to be possessed. These territories are listed, but the Lord directed Joshua to proceed with the division of the land among the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:7; cf. 13:8–18:28). Joshua himself was given the city he asked for, Timnath-serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, which he rebuilt and settled (19:49-50).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord told Joshua to appoint cities of refuge to which a person guilty of manslaughter could flee to escape the avenger of blood (Jos 20). Then the Levites came to Eleazar the priest and Joshua to request that they be given their cities, as the Lord had commanded through Moses (21:1-42).<\/p>\n\n<p>In his advanced years Joshua summoned all Israel and solemnly charged them to continue in faithfulness to the Lord (Jos 23). Finally, he called all Israel to Shechem, where he gave them his farewell message. He summed up the Lord’s dealings with them from the time of Abraham and again challenged them to serve the Lord, putting before them the well-known choice and decision: “Choose today whom you will serve. . . . As for me and my family, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:15, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua died at the age of 110 years and was buried in the land of his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Jos 24:29-30; the parallel account in Jgs 2:8-9 reads “Timnath-heres,” <span>nlt<\/span> mg). Israel served the Lord during all the days of Joshua and the elders who outlived him (Jos 24:31; Jgs 2:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Inhabitant of Beth-shemesh. It was his grainfield into which the cart carrying the ark sent by the Philistines came. It stopped by a large stone which was then used to commemorate this event (1 Sm 6:14, 18).<\/li>\n<li>3. Governor of Jerusalem during King Josiah’s reign (2 Kgs 23:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Jozadak’s son and high priest during the days of Zerubbabel in postexilic Jerusalem (Hg 1:1-14; 2:2-4; Zec 3:1-9; 6:11; <span>nlt<\/span> “Jeshua”). Joshua is alternately called Jeshua in Ezra and Nehemiah. <em>See<\/em> Jeshua (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>5. Eliezer’s son and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","summary_en":"JOSHUA (Person) 1. Son of Nun, Moses’ assistant and successor, and the military leader whom God chose to lead the Israelites in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 13:16, kjv “Jehoshua”; also spelled “Jehoshuah” in 1 Chr 7:27 and “Jeshua” in Neh 8:17). Early in the exodus, Joshua was sent by Moses to fight against the Amalekites (Ex 17:8-15). Joshua defeated Amalek, and Moses wrote of the event and built an altar that he called “The Lord Is My Banner” (v 15). When Moses sent 12 men from Kadesh-barnea ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48210,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:17","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","summary_en":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75836,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:17","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","summary_en":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103462,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:17","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","summary_en":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131088,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:17","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:17<\/strong> <em>since the days of Joshua:<\/em> Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","summary_en":"8:17 since the days of Joshua: Although Israel had observed this festival on numerous occasions (1 Kgs 8:2; 2 Kgs 23:22; 2 Chr 7:8-10; 30:26; 35:18; Ezra 3:4), this was an exceptional celebration.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":13494,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Genesis","title_en":"Book of Genesis","content_ro":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENESIS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First book of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bere’shith<\/span><em>,<\/em> “in the beginning.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Genesis is closely related to the authorship of the entire Pentateuch (lit. “five-volumed,” the first five books of the Bible, which in Hebrew are called the Torah). It is clear that the Bible regards the human author of these books as Moses. On several occasions the Lord commanded Moses to write down various things: “in a book” (Ex 17:14) “write these words” (34:27). The Pentateuch reports that “Moses wrote all the words of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (24:4); he wrote the itinerary of the exodus wanderings (Nm 33:2); “Moses wrote this law” (Dt 31:9). (Here it is not certain that all five books are meant, but it must refer to at least the greater part of Deuteronomy.) In Exodus 24:7 it is said that Moses read the Book of the Covenant, which he must have just completed.<\/p>\n<p>The rest of the OT bears witness to the writing of the Pentateuch by Moses. David referred to “the law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3). In the time of Josiah, there was found in the temple the “Book of the Law of the <span>Lord<\/span> . . . given through Moses” (2 Chr 34:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Day by day Ezra read from “the Book of the Law of God” (Neh 8:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus refers to “the book of Moses” (Mk 12:26; Lk 20:37) and otherwise mentions the commands or statements of Moses (Mt 8:4; 19:8; Mk 7:10; cf. Lk 16:31; 24:44). The Jews also quoted from the Torah as coming from Moses, and Jesus did not contradict them.<\/p>\n<p>Of Genesis in particular, it may be said that Moses had the opportunity and ability to write the book. He could have written it during his years in Egypt or while exiled with the Kenites. As the recognized leader of the Israelites, he would have had access to, or perhaps even custody of, the records that Jacob brought from Canaan. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Acts 7:22) and probably could have written in several languages and in several scripts (hieroglyphic, cuneiform, Old Hebrew). Although Moses was admirably fitted for the task of writing, one must remember that he was not putting together a human composition but was writing under the inspiration of God (2 Pt 1:21). We may with confidence conclude that Moses was the human author of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>The liberal view of the authorship of Genesis is that the book is an editorial composite—a view first put forward by a French physician, Jean Astruc, who suggested that the different names for God indicated different documents or sources for the writing of the book. The German higher critics expanded the view of the use of documents in the writing of Genesis and developed it into the Graf-Wellhausen-Kuenen, or Documentary, Hypothesis, which may also be called the JEDP theory of the authorship of the book. This view holds that there were four basic documents: (1) J, which uses the name YHWH (Jehovah or Yahweh) for God, dates from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> and comes from Judah; (2) E uses the name Elohim, dates from the eighth century, and comes from the northern kingdom; (3) D is Deuteronomy and is supposed to come from the time of Josiah, about 621 <span>BC<\/span>; and (4) P is the priestly element, which deals with matters of the priesthood and ritual, dating to the fifth century <span>BC<\/span> or later. Some may date portions of Genesis as late as the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, the various documents were blended together by editors, so that there was a JE, JED, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>The science of archaeology discredited many of the extreme postulations of these critics, and the work of W. F. Albright and his followers did much to restore confidence in the historicity of Genesis. Within the last several decades, the patriarchal narratives and the account of Joseph have again come under strong attack, but these views are extreme, and much of the evidence adduced by Albright and earlier scholars like R. D. Wilson, W. H. Green, and others still has validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The date of the book is also a matter of debate. Even among those who accept Mosaic authorship there is debate as to when Moses lived. Based on the biblical data, Moses should have lived in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Jgs 11:26; 1 Kgs 6:1), but many scholars incline toward a 13th-century date. As outlined above, the liberal view of the date of Genesis would be from the ninth to the fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, with the final editing coming around the fifth century or perhaps even later.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Genesis sketches the origin of many things: the universe, the earth, plants, animals, and mankind. It gives the beginnings of human institutions, professions, and crafts. It describes the origin of sin and death, and illustrates the insidious working of Satan in human life. Above all, Genesis relates the beginning of the history of redemption with the announcement of a Redeemer who was to come (Gn 3:15). It names the early progenitors in the lineage of the Messiah and the beginning of the Hebrew people through whom the Bible and the Savior came. Genesis also gives a selective history of people and events as viewed from the perspective of the purposes of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The book is divided into 11 parts of uneven length, each set off by the expression “these are the generations [descendants, history] of” (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1; 37:2). Only three times does the formula coincide with the first verse of a chapter. Usually called a heading or superscription, the expression serves as a kind of link between what precedes and what follows.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Creation (1:1–2:25)<\/h5>\n<p>These two chapters have been a scientific-theological battleground for many years, as researchers and students have tried to probe the origins of the universe and of life. Much of the evidence is not subject to scientific scrutiny, for science by definition requires that the evidence must be reproducible by experiment.<\/p>\n<p>The statement of Genesis 1:1 remains the grandest, most precise, and most accurate statement of origins: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” He did this <em>ex nihilo<\/em> (“out of nothing”) by his word (Heb 11:3); he spoke the word of command and it was done (Gn 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20; Ps 33:6, 9).<\/p>\n<p>The date of the beginning is unknown. Uniformitarian cosmogonists (students of the origins of the universe who believe that natural events have always followed a uniform pattern; cf. 2 Pt 3:3-7) have speculated that the beginning of the universe was billions of years ago. But some creationists posit a world thousands of years old.<\/p>\n<p>To accommodate geological ages and the existence of extinct animals, some interpreters have proposed a gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2, with Genesis 1:2–2:3 representing a second or new creation. But this is conjecture. So is the idea that each day represents a geological age.<\/p>\n<p>As the text stands, there is a correlation between the first three days and the second three days. Day one saw the creation of light; day four, the light bearers. Day two was the time of the creation of the firmament (better, “expanse”), which divided the waters; day five, birds and swarming water creatures. On day three, God made the dry land and plants; on day six he created the land animals and man. He made man in the image of God (Gn 1:26), “a little less than God” (Ps 8:5), and gave him dominion over the earth. He made everything “according to their kinds,” so that each kind is distinct and unique. The perfection of his work is affirmed in that “God saw that it was good” (Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21; “very good,” v 31). The seventh day was a time of cessation from the activity of creating and served as a type for mankind’s day of rest (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Critical scholarship eyes 2:4-25 as a doublet in conflict with Genesis 1:1–2:3. To conservative scholars, the second chapter is the same account from a different perspective. Chapter 1 gives the Creation from the standpoint of sequence; chapter 2 shows it in view of the centrality of mankind in God’s creative work.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 2 gives details of the creation of man of “dust from the ground” (v 7) and woman from a rib of the man (vv 21-22). She was created to be “a companion who will help him” (vv 18-20). They were created as mature adults, with the gift of speech and with great intelligence. Adam had imagination and vocabulary sufficient for naming all of the animal species (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>The location of the Garden of Eden is given (vv 10-14). Two of the four rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, can be identified with certainty. So man lived in this beautiful garden in the bliss of innocence.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Humankind from Eden to Babel (3:1–11:26)<\/h5>\n<h6>The Fall<\/h6>\n<p>The loss of Eden and the break in fellowship with God is the saddest chapter in human history. The serpent, the devil, approached Eve with the same philosophy he always uses: doubt of God’s word (Gn 3:1), denial of death (v 4), and the suggestion of equality with God (v 5). He gained access to her will by deceiving her with the promise that the fruit would make her as wise as God is (Gn 3:5; cf. 1 Jn 2:16). Eve was deceived, but when she offered the fruit to Adam, he took it willingly, knowing what he was doing (Gn 3:6; cf. 1 Tm 2:14). Later, he tried to blame God for giving him the wife who gave him the fruit (Gn 3:12). Fellowship with God was broken (v 8), yet God came seeking Adam and found him.<\/p>\n<p>With sin came judgment, and the Lord pronounced righteous judgment on the serpent, the woman, and the man. The earth was also “subjected to frustration” and now groans as it awaits renewal (Rom 8:21-22). God gave hope to man and a promise of a Redeemer (Gn 3:15), who was to bruise the serpent’s head. Adam and Eve were forced out of the Garden, and it was made inaccessible to them.<\/p>\n<p>The impatience of humankind is shown in Eve’s expectation that her son Cain was the promised Deliverer. Instead, he developed a wrong-hearted attitude toward God and became so jealous of his younger brother that he murdered him. Apprehended by God and confronted with his crime, Cain showed only self-pity and went east from Eden, where he built a city (4:1-16). Chapter 4 closes with another contrast: the brazen Lamech, who called for vengeance, while others began to call upon the name of the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>The Generations of Adam<\/h6>\n<p>This genealogical table (5:1-32) brings humankind to the time of Noah and the Flood. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs seems very striking to us, but one must remember that the earth had not yet been subjected to pollution and that the effects of sin on the human race were still nominal. The refrain “and he died” reminds us of man’s mortality. For Enoch, however, there was something better: “He enjoyed a close relationship with God throughout his life. Then, suddenly, he disappeared because God took him” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>The Flood<\/h6>\n<p>With increased population came an eruption of sin (6:1-5). As men multiplied, so did their corruption. The universal condemnation of verse 5 shows a world ripe for judgment. Noah, however, “found favor with the <span>Lord<\/span>,” for he was a righteous and blameless man who walked with God (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord planned to annihilate the human race, but he determined to save Noah and his family. Intending to flood the earth, God instructed Noah to build an ark. Noah was directed to take animals aboard the ark, two by two, male and female, for the preservation of each species. When all was in readiness, the Flood came: “the underground waters burst forth on the earth, and the rain fell in mighty torrents from the sky” (7:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). It rained for 40 days and 40 nights. The highest mountains were covered, and life outside the ark perished. “But God remembered Noah” and sent a wind to evaporate the waters (8:1). Eventually the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat (v 4). Noah made a sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord determined that he would never again bring such destruction upon the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The Flood is another of God’s acts that has been much debated. Many have argued for a local flood, which affected only part of Mesopotamia. Archaeologists have pointed to various flood strata in the excavation of Mesopotamian city-mounds as evidence for the account of the flood and have cited the various flood stories from that area as the source of the Genesis record. The epic of Gilgamesh gives an interesting tale of this hero, who went on a mission to visit Utnapishtim, the cuneiform Noah, in quest of eternal life. The flood story told by Utnapishtim has many parallels to Genesis, but there are greater contrasts, which demonstrate that the Bible preserves the true account.<\/p>\n<p>Both the Genesis account and the references to it in the NT (cf. 2 Pt 3:6) favor the view that the deluge was not a minor episode in the Tigris-Euphrates area but was an unprecedented worldwide catastrophe. Christian geologists affirm that the Flood had far-reaching effects on the earth itself. Flood stories are almost universally known, lending support to the conclusion that the Flood covered the whole earth. Following the Flood, God blessed Noah and his sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth. God made a covenant with Noah, promising that he would never again send a worldwide flood. As a sign of this, he established the rainbow.<\/p>\n<p>Noah was the first tiller of the soil, and he planted a vineyard (9:20). Noah became drunk from wine he made and lay uncovered in his tent. Ham saw him and reported this to his brothers, who discreetly covered him. Ham and his son Canaan were cursed; Shem and Japheth were blessed.<\/p>\n<h6>The History of the Nations<\/h6>\n<p>“This is the history of the families of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the three sons of Noah. Many children were born to them after the Flood” (10:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). This chapter lists the descendants of Noah’s three sons, in the order of Japheth (vv 2-5), Ham (vv 6-20), and Shem (vv 21-31). Many of the names of their descendants are preserved in tribes and nations of the world.<\/p>\n<h6>The Tower of Babel<\/h6>\n<p>The building of the Tower of Babel (“Gate of God”) illustrates man’s perversity and his tendency to want independence from God. The desire of man to displace God follows the fateful example of Lucifer and is a basic tenet of many cults. God thwarted the designs of the builders of Babel by confusing their languages, so that the project came to a halt (11:1-9). The site of this tower is not known with certainty. Some associate it with Birs Nimrud, not far from the ruins of the city of Babylon. Genesis 11:10-25 picks up the line of Shem and carries it down to Terah, the father of Abram.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Abraham (11:27–25:10) and Isaac (21:1–28:5)<\/h5>\n<p>Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees, a prosperous city. The city had an imposing ziggurat (temple-tower), with many temples, storehouses, and residences. Abram and Sarai, his half sister and wife, went with his father to Haran in Syria, which like Ur was a center of the worship of the moon god, Sin (or Annar).<\/p>\n<h6>Abram’s Call<\/h6>\n<p>The call of God came to Abram directing him to leave his relatives and move to a land that the Lord would show him (12:1; cf. Acts 7:2-3). Abram obeyed. At the age of 75, he, Sarai, and his nephew Lot left Haran and went to Shechem, where the Lord appeared to him and promised that land to his descendants.<\/p>\n<p>Famine drove Abram down to Egypt (Gn 12:10-20). Because of Sarai’s beauty, he feared that someone might kill him to get her, so he passed her off as his sister. She was taken into the pharaoh’s harem. When the Lord plagued Pharaoh because of this, Abram’s lie was discovered and Sarai was returned to him.<\/p>\n<h6>Abram and Lot<\/h6>\n<p>Abram and Lot returned to Canaan, where strife broke out between Abram’s herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram suggested that they should separate, and he gave Lot the choice of territory. Lot chose the well-watered Jordan Valley and the cities of the plain, Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 13).<\/p>\n<h6>The Invasion of the Four Kings from the East<\/h6>\n<p>The four kings who invaded along the King’s Highway in Transjordan cannot be identified with certainty. Those kings were successful in their attack against the five cities of the plain, and they moved off with much booty and many captives, including Lot. Abram took 318 retainers, born in his household, and set off after them. By surprise attack, Abram recovered both Lot and the loot. On his return he was met by Melchizedek, king of Jerusalem, to whom Abram paid tithes (ch 14).<\/p>\n<h6>The Covenant<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord promised Abram a son as heir, and in an impressive nighttime ceremony, God made a covenant with Abram and promised him the land from the River of Egypt (Wadi el Arish) to the Euphrates (ch 15). Because of her own barrenness, Sarai gave her Egyptian maid, Hagar, to Abram. Hagar gave birth to Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arab peoples. When trouble arose between the women, Sarai sent Hagar away, which was her right according to Near Eastern customs (as illustrated by the Nuzi tablets). God showed mercy to Hagar and promised that she would have a great posterity (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>God repeated his promise to Abram concerning his descendants and changed the names of Abram (“exalted father”) and Sarai to Abraham (“father of many”) and Sarah (“princess”). A covenant sign of circumcision was given to Abraham (ch 17). This operation had already been practiced among the Egyptians for several centuries.<\/p>\n<h6>The Destruction of the Cities of the Plain<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord and two angels appeared to Abraham and announced the birth of the promised heir within a year, as well as proclaimed the impending destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, concerning which Abraham bargained with God (18:22-33). Lot and his immediate family were rescued from Sodom, and the cities were destroyed by God with brimstone and fire (19:24-25). Lot’s two daughters, wishing to preserve their family line, got their father drunk and had sexual relations with him. Moab and Ammon, enemies of Israel in later times, were the result.<\/p>\n<p>In Genesis 20:1-18, Abraham again represented Sarah as his sister and got into trouble with Abimelech, king of Gerar.<\/p>\n<h6>Isaac<\/h6>\n<p>When Isaac was born (21:1-3), trouble again broke out between Sarah and Hagar. Hagar was driven out a second time, and once more was befriended by the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>A disagreement arose between Abraham and Abimelech concerning a well, but they made a covenant of peace at Beersheba (21:25-34).<\/p>\n<p>God tested Abraham’s faith by asking him to sacrifice Isaac on Mt Moriah, which probably is the same site David later bought from Araunah the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-25), the place where the temple was to stand. As Abraham was about to use the knife, God called to him and showed him a ram caught in a thicket. Isaac was freed and the animal was sacrificed in his stead.<\/p>\n<p>Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah as a burial place from Ephron the Hittite (ch 23), in a transaction typical of Near Eastern business dealings. To find a wife for Isaac, Abraham sent his servant Eliezer back to the area of Haran, and the Lord directed Eliezer to Rebekah (ch 24).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 25 records the marriage of Abraham to Keturah, who bore him a number of children. Abraham died at the age of 175 years and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his two sons, Isaac and Ishmael.<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Jacob and Esau (25:19–37:1)<\/h5>\n<p>Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob. When the boys were grown, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal of red pottage (25:27-34).<\/p>\n<p>When famine came to the land, Isaac went to Gerar, as his father had done (ch 20), and repeated his father’s lie by calling his wife his sister (26:1-11). Trouble arose with the Philistines over wells, but Isaac was a peaceable man and preferred digging new wells rather than fighting over old ones (vv 17-33).<\/p>\n<p>In Isaac’s old age, when his sight had failed, Rebekah connived with Jacob to trick Isaac into giving to Jacob the blessing of the firstborn, which was rightfully Esau’s. This oral blessing had legal validity and was irrevocable, according to the ancient Nuzi tablets. Fearing for Jacob’s life at the hands of Esau, Rebekah arranged to send Jacob to Haran to find a wife from among her own people. At Bethel, God appeared to Jacob in a dream of a ladder leading up to heaven; God renewed with Jacob the promise made to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-22).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob reached Haran, found his uncle Laban, and was employed by him (ch 29). His wages for seven years of labor were to be Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, as his wife. But Laban substituted Leah, so that Jacob had to work another seven years for Rachel. The Lord prospered Jacob, but he continually had difficulties with Laban. The Lord directed Jacob back to Canaan (31:3), so he left secretly with his wives, children, and property. Laban pursued them because his household gods were missing (possession of these “gods” made the holder heir to the owner’s estate, according to Nuzi custom). Rachel had taken them but successfully concealed them from her father, and Laban went back to Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Fearing a meeting with Esau as they passed through Edom, Jacob sent gifts to his brother and divided his own party into two camps for security. On this return journey, Jacob had an unexpected wrestling bout with the Angel of the Lord, and he was left with a limp and a new name, Israel (ch 32).<\/p>\n<p>The meeting with Esau was friendly, and Jacob went on to Shechem (ch 33), where his sons killed the male Shechemites because of the rape of their sister Dinah (ch 34). God told Jacob to go to Bethel and build an altar to the Lord. All idols of foreign gods were buried (35:1-4). At Bethel, God reaffirmed his promise of a posterity and the land (vv 9-15). Rachel died on the way to Bethlehem, while giving birth to Benjamin, Jacob’s 12th and last son. Isaac died at Hebron at age 180 and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by Esau and Jacob.<\/p>\n<p>Genesis 36 records “the generations of Esau” (v 1). Here Esau is also named Edom (“Red”; cf. 25:30).<\/p>\n<h5>The History of Joseph (37:2–50:26)<\/h5>\n<p>Joseph was Jacob’s favorite son and thus incurred the jealousy of his brothers. This was heightened by Joseph’s dreams of lordship over them. Their resentment of Joseph came to a climax when Jacob gave Joseph a beautiful coat. The brothers determined to kill Joseph, but they compromised by selling him to a caravan of merchants, who took him to Egypt and sold him as a slave to Potiphar, an Egyptian captain of the guard (37:36; 39:1).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 38 relates a historic case of levirate marriage. Judah failed to give his widowed daughter-in-law to his third son. She deceived him into fathering twin sons and forced him to acknowledge his faults. The elder son, Perez, is named in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord blessed Joseph, who soon was put in charge of Potiphar’s household (Gn 39). The young man attracted the attention of Potiphar’s wife, who, after many attempts to seduce him, at last accused him of attempted rape. Sentenced on this charge, Joseph met with favor in prison, where he had opportunity to interpret dreams for two of the pharaoh’s servants (ch 40). When the king had dreams that his magicians and wise men could not interpret, Joseph was summoned from jail. Joseph told Pharaoh that the dreams meant seven years of plenty, followed by seven years of famine. Joseph was then exalted to the office of vizier, or prime minister, second only to the king, and put in charge of the administration of the land (41:37-44).<\/p>\n<p>When the famine came to Palestine, Jacob sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Joseph recognized his brothers but did not reveal his identity to them. Joseph put them to the test by accusing them of being spies (42:9), by keeping one of the brothers (Simeon) hostage (v 19), and by demanding that if they came to Egypt again, they must bring their youngest brother with them (42:20; 43:3). The famine became so severe in Canaan (43:1) that Jacob at last allowed Benjamin to go with his brothers to Egypt. The brothers were again set up by Joseph, who had his silver cup put into Benjamin’s grain sack and then had him apprehended as a thief (ch 44).<\/p>\n<p>At this point Joseph revealed his identity to his brothers (45:4-15) and there was much rejoicing. Joseph pointed out that it was God who had sent him to Egypt (vv 7-8), in order to preserve the lives of all the family. Jacob was then sent for (46:1), and Joseph met him in the land of Goshen (46:28-29). The Israelites were assigned land in the region of Goshen, where they prospered (47:27).<\/p>\n<p>In Jacob’s final illness, Joseph brought his two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, to his father for his blessing. Jacob gave the primary blessing to the second-born, Ephraim (48:13-20). Jacob blessed each of his own sons and then died at the age of at least 130 years. Joseph arranged for Jacob’s body to be prepared for burial according to Egyptian custom (50:2-3). After the burial of their father in the cave of Machpelah at Hebron, Joseph’s brothers worried about vengeance, but Joseph declared, “As far as I am concerned, God turned into good what you meant for evil. He brought me to the high position I have today so I could save the lives of many people” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph died at age 110 with the prophetic request that when the Israelites went up from Egypt they would take his bones with them (50:25; cf. Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Abraham; Adam (Person); Covenant; Creation; Eve; Fall of Man; Flood, The; Isaac; Jacob #1; Joseph #1; Nations; Noah #1; Patriarchs, Period of the.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","summary_en":"GENESIS, Book of First book of the Bible. Preview • Name • Author • Date • Purpose • Structure • Content Name The name Genesis comes into English as a transliteration of the Greek word meaning “origin” or “beginning.” This name was given to the book in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint. Genesis reflects both the content of the book and the Hebrew name for it, which is taken from its first word, bere’shith, “in the beginning.” Author The authorship of Gene...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48211,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","summary_en":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75837,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","summary_en":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103463,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","summary_en":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Neemia 8:18","title_en":"Study Note: Neemia 8:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>8:18<\/strong> <em>Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God:<\/em> The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","summary_en":"8:18 Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God: The law was to be read every seven years at the Festival of Shelters (Deut 31:10-12). It reminded the people of the covenant stipulations and of God’s past acts of grace.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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