Numeri 9
1 Domnul a vorbit lui Moise, în pustia Sinai, în luna întâi a anului al doilea, după ieşirea lor din ţara Egiptului. Şi a zis:
2 ,,Copiii lui Israel să prăznuiască Paştele la vremea hotărâtă.
3 Să le prăznuiţi la vremea hotărâtă, în a patrusprezecea zi a lunii acesteia, seara1; să le prăznuiţi după toate legile, şi după toate poruncile privitoare la ele.``
4 Moise a vorbit copiilor lui Israel, să prăznuiască Paştele.
5 Şi au prăznuit Paştele în a patrusprezecea zi a lunii întâi, seara1, în pustia Sinai; copiii lui Israel au făcut întocmai după toate poruncile, pe cari le dăduse lui Moise Domnul.
6 S-a întâmplat că nişte oameni, fiind necuraţi din pricină că se atinseseră de un mort, nu puteau prăznui Paştele în ziua aceea. Ei s-au înfăţişat în aceeaş zi înaintea lui Moise şi înaintea lui Aaron.
7 Şi oamenii aceia au zis lui Moise: ,,Noi sântem necuraţi din pricina unui mort; de ce să fim nevoiţi să nu ne aducem la vremea hotărâtă darul cuvenit Domnului în mijlocul copiilor lui Israel?``
8 Moise le-a răspuns: ,,Aşteptaţi să văd ce vă porunceşte Domnul.``
9 Şi Domnul a vorbit lui Moise, şi a zis:
10 ,,Vorbeşte copiilor lui Israel, şi spune-le: ,Dacă cineva dintre voi sau dintre urmaşii voştri este necurat din pricina unui mort, sau este într-o călătorie lungă, totuş să prăznuiască Paştele în cinstea Domnului.
11 Şi, să le prăznuiască în luna a doua, în ziua a patrusprezecea, seara1; să le mănânce cu azimi şi ierburi amare.
12 Să nu lase din ele nimic până a doua zi dimineaţa, şi să nu frângă niciun os din ele. Să le prăznuiască după toate poruncile privitoare la Paşte.
13 Dacă cineva nu este necurat, nici nu este în călătorie, şi totuş nu prăznuieşte Paştele, sufletul acela să fie nimicit din poporul lui; pentru că n-a adus darul cuvenit Domnului la vremea hotărâtă, omul acela să-şi ia pedeapsa pentru păcatul lui.
14 Dacă un străin, care locuieşte între voi, prăznuieşte Paştele Domnului, să se ţină de legile şi poruncile privitoare la Paşte. Aceeaş lege să fie între voi, pentru străin ca şi pentru băştinaş.``
15 În ziua când a fost aşezat cortul, norul a acoperit locaşul cortului întâlnirii; şi, de seara până dimineaţa deasupra cortului era ca înfăţişarea unui foc.
16 Totdeauna era aşa: ziua, norul acoperea cortul, iar noaptea avea înfăţişarea unui foc.
17 Când se ridica norul de pe cort, porneau şi copiii lui Israel; şi acolo unde se oprea norul, tăbărau şi copiii lui Israel.
18 Copiii lui Israel porneau după porunca Domnului şi tăbărau după porunca Domnului; tăbărau atâta vreme cât rămânea norul deasupra cortului.
19 Când norul rămânea mai multă vreme deasupra cortului, copiii lui Israel ascultau de porunca Domnului, şi nu porneau.
20 Când norul rămânea mai puţine zile deasupra cortului, ei tăbărau după porunca Domnului, şi porneau după porunca Domnului.
21 Dacă norul se oprea de seara până dimineaţa, şi se ridica dimineaţa, atunci porneau şi ei. Dacă norul se ridica după o zi şi o noapte, atunci porneau şi ei.
22 Dacă norul se oprea deasupra cortului două zile, sau o lună, sau un an, copiii lui Israel rămâneau tăbărîţi, şi nu porneau; şi când se ridica, porneau şi ei.
23 Tăbărau după porunca Domnului, şi porneau după porunca Domnului; ascultau de porunca Domnului, de porunca Domnului dată prin Moise.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":96243,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123869,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":134144,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":179121,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":189031,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":234373,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":244348,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moise","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>Moise<\/h3>\n<p>Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii.<\/p>\n<p>Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decretase ca toți băieții evrei să fie uciși la naștere. Mama lui Moise, Iochebed, și-a încredințat fiul prunc lui Dumnezeu și l-a așezat pe Nil într-un coș de papură. Fiica faraonului l-a găsit și l-a dus în palat, ca să-l crească drept copilul ei (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Se cunosc puține lucruri despre creșterea lui Moise. Tradiția iudaică susține că el a primit atât pregătire administrativă, cât și instruire militară în casa faraonului. Când avea aproximativ patruzeci de ani, a ucis un egiptean pentru a salva un sclav evreu, apoi a fugit în Madian (2:11-15; compară cu Fapte 7:23-29). Acolo a salvat câteva tinere care erau hărțuite în timp ce își adăpau turmele. Tatăl lor (Ietro) l-a invitat acasă. Moise s-a căsătorit cu una dintre ele, Sefora, și și-a întemeiat o familie, îngrijind turmele socrului său.<\/p>\n<p>Aproximativ patruzeci de ani mai târziu, Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit lui Moise într-un rug aprins și l-a însărcinat să se întoarcă în Egipt pentru a-Și elibera poporul din robie (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moise a ezitat, temându-se că israeliții nu îl vor accepta ca lider. Atunci Dumnezeu i-a descoperit lui Moise numele Său de legământ, Yahweh, și l-a rânduit pe Aaron ca purtător de cuvânt al lui Moise.<\/p>\n<p>Moise și Aaron au mers în Egipt și l-au înfruntat pe faraon, care s-a împotrivit cu încăpățânare cererii lui Moise de a-i elibera pe sclavii israeliți. Moise a anunțat apoi o serie de plăgi, care în cele din urmă l-au convins pe faraon să-i lase pe israeliți să plece. După plecarea lor din Egipt, faraonul și-a schimbat hotărârea și i-a urmărit până la marginea Mării Roșii. Dumnezeu le-a dat israeliților posibilitatea să treacă în siguranță de cealaltă parte, despărțind apele; armata egipteană care îi urmărea a fost nimicită când apele s-au închis peste ea.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus Israelul la muntele Sinai, locul unde Îl întâlnise pe Dumnezeu la rugul aprins. Dumnezeu i S-a descoperit din nou lui Moise pe acel munte, dându-i Legea (inclusiv Cele Zece Porunci; Exod 20:1–23:19) și instrucțiuni pentru construirea Cortului Întâlnirii. Dar când Moise a coborât de pe munte, a descoperit că poporul Îl părăsise deja pe adevăratul Dumnezeu, închinându-se unui vițel de aur (Exod 32). Moise a aruncat cele două table ale Legii și le-a sfărâmat, apoi i-a mobilizat pe leviți să execute pedeapsa asupra unora dintre vinovați. După ce s-a rugat pentru popor, a primit o nouă copie a Legii și a condus poporul în construirea Cortului Întâlnirii.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a condus prin pustie un popor cârtitor, răzvrătit și neîncrezător. Chiar și fratele și sora lui i-au contestat conducerea, folosindu-se ca pretext de căsătoria lui cu o femeie cușită (Num 12). Moise a răspuns cu mare smerenie, iar Dumnezeu a confirmat că Moise era purtătorul Său de cuvânt și omul Său de încredere.<\/p>\n<p>Moise a fost un om mare, dar nu unul desăvârșit. Când poporul i-a întins răbdarea prin plângerile legate de lipsa apei, Moise nu a urmat instrucțiunile lui Dumnezeu și a lovit o anumită stâncă, în loc să-i vorbească (Num 20:1-13). Faptele lui nu au arătat sfințenia lui Dumnezeu, iar prin cuvintele sale Moise a lăsat să se înțeleagă că el însuși adusese apa prin propria putere (Num 20:10; compară cu Ps 106:32-33). Drept urmare, Dumnezeu nu i-a îngăduit să intre în Țara Promisă.<\/p>\n<p>Înainte de moarte, Moise a rostit o ultimă predică, cunoscută nouă ca fiind cartea Deuteronomul. Prima generație de israeliți, cei ieșiți din Egipt, murise în pustie, astfel că Moise se adresa unei noi generații. Moise a reînnoit legământul cu această generație, le-a reamintit condițiile lui și i-a îndemnat să-l asculte și să-I slujească numai Domnului.<\/p>\n<p>După ce a rostit această predică și înainte ca Israelul să intre în Canaan, Moise a urcat pe vârful Pisga, pe muntele Nebo, unde a murit. „Nu s-a mai ridicat în Israel niciun profet ca Moise, pe care <span>Domnul<\/span> să-l fi cunoscut față în față” (Deut 34:10). Numai Isus l-a întrecut pe Moise ca mijlocitor între Dumnezeu și oameni (Fapte 3:17-26; Evr 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moise este menționat în Noul Testament mai mult decât orice altă figură din Vechiul Testament și a apărut la schimbarea la față a lui Isus. Noul Testament subliniază rolul lui de dătător al Legii și folosește experiențele lui Moise pentru a arăta modele ale vieții sub noul legământ. Asemenea lui Moise, Isus a fost salvat ca prunc de planurile rele ale unui despot omenesc (Mat 2:13-18). Vestirea unei noi Legi de către Isus în Predica de pe Munte (Mat 5–7) corespunde dării Legii la Sinai și Îl prezintă pe Isus ca interpretul autorizat al voii lui Dumnezeu. Epistola către Evrei Îl compară pe Hristos cu Moise, în timp ce Epistola lui Pavel către Galateni și Evanghelia după Ioan contrastează Legea lui Moise cu noua relație a credinciosului cu Dumnezeu (vezi Ioan 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Evr 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Cron 23:13-17; Ps 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Marcu 9:2-13; Fapte 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Evr 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moses<\/h3>\n<p>Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Moses’ mother, Jochebed, entrusted her infant son to God and set him afloat in the Nile in a reed basket. Pharaoh’s daughter found him and took him into the palace to raise as her own child (Exod 2:3-10).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known about Moses’ upbringing. Jewish tradition holds that he received both administrative and military training in Pharaoh’s household. When he was about forty years old, he killed an Egyptian to rescue a Hebrew slave, and then he fled to Midian (2:11-15; cp. Acts 7:23-29). There he rescued some young women who were being harassed as they watered their flocks. Their father (Jethro) invited him home. Moses married one of the women, Zipporah, and began a family as he cared for his father-in-law’s flocks.<\/p>\n<p>About forty years later, God revealed himself to Moses in a burning bush and commissioned Moses to return to Egypt to rescue his people from slavery (Exod 3:1–4:17). Moses hesitated, fearful that the Israelites would not accept him as their leader. So God revealed to Moses his covenant name, Yahweh, and assigned Aaron as Moses’ spokesman.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and Aaron went to Egypt and confronted Pharaoh, who stubbornly resisted Moses' demand that he free the Israelite slaves. Moses then announced a series of plagues, which eventually convinced Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave. After they had left Egypt, Pharaoh changed his mind and pursued them to the edge of the Red Sea. God enabled the Israelites to cross safely to the other side by dividing the waters; the pursuing Egyptian army was destroyed when the waters closed over them.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led Israel to Mount Sinai, where he had encountered God at the burning bush. God again revealed himself to Moses on that mountain, giving him the law (including the Ten Commandments; Exod 20:1–23:19) and directions for building the Tabernacle. But when Moses came down from the mountain, he found that the people had already deserted the true God by worshiping a gold calf (Exod 32). Moses threw down and broke the two tablets of the law and rallied the Levites to execute some of the offenders. After praying for the people, he received a new copy of the law and led the people in building the Tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p>Moses led a grumbling, rebellious, and distrustful people through the wilderness. Even his own brother and sister challenged his leadership, using his marriage to a Cushite woman as an excuse (Num 12). Moses responded with great humility, and God affirmed that Moses was his spokesman and confidant.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was a great man, but not a perfect one. When the people stretched his patience by complaining about a lack of water, Moses failed to follow God’s instructions and struck a certain rock rather than speaking to it (Num 20:1-13). His actions failed to demonstrate God’s holiness, and by what he said, Moses implied that he had brought the water by his own power (Num 20:10; cp. Ps 106:32-33). As a result, God did not allow him to enter the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Before his death, Moses delivered a final sermon, known to us as the book of Deuteronomy. The first generation of Israelites, who had come out of Egypt, had died in the wilderness, so Moses was addressing a new generation. Moses renewed the covenant with this generation, reminded them of its terms, and encouraged them to obey it and serve the Lord alone.<\/p>\n<p>After giving this sermon and before Israel entered Canaan, Moses climbed Pisgah Peak on Mount Nebo, where he died. “There has never been another prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (Deut 34:10). Only Jesus surpassed Moses as a mediator between God and human beings (Acts 3:17-26; Heb 3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses is mentioned in the New Testament more than any other Old Testament figure, and he appeared at Jesus’ transfiguration. The New Testament emphasizes his role as lawgiver and draws from Moses’ experiences to show patterns of life under the new covenant. Like Moses, Jesus was rescued as an infant from the evil designs of a human despot (Matt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7) parallels the giving of the law at Sinai and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of God’s will. The letter to the Hebrews compares Christ with Moses, while Paul’s letter to the Galatians and the Gospel of John contrast the law of Moses with a believer’s new relationship with God (see John 1:17; Gal 3:1-5; Heb 3:5-6; 9:11–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:1-22; 3:1–19:25; 20:19-21; 24:1-18; 31:18; 32:1–34:35; 39:42-43; 40:16; Lev 8:1-36; 10:1-20; 24:10-23; Num 7:1-11, 89; 9:1-14; 10:29–14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1–17:13; 20:1-29; 21:4-9; 25:1-5; 27:1-23; 31:1–32:33; 33:1-2; Deut 1:1-5; 31:1–34:12; 1 Chr 23:13-17; Pss 77:20; 90:1-17; 103:7; 105:26-27; 106:32-33; Mark 9:2-13; Acts 7:17-44; 1 Cor 10:1-14; 2 Cor 3:7-18; Gal 3:19; Heb 3:1-19; 8:5; 9:19-22; 11:23-28; 12:18-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moise Moise a fost conducătorul întemeietor al lui Israel ca națiune. Dumnezeu l-a folosit pe Moise într-un moment decisiv din istoria poporului Său. El a fost profetul care a primit Legea și a mijlocit legământul lui Dumnezeu cu Israel la muntele Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). El a fost, de asemenea, primul scriitor cunoscut al Scripturii. Fratele mai mic al Mariei și al lui Aaron, Moise s-a născut în Egipt în împrejurări primejdioase (Exod 1:15–2:2). Faraonul Egiptului, temându-se de o răscoală, decr...","summary_en":"Moses Moses was the founding leader of Israel as a nation. God used Moses at a critical juncture in the history of his people. He was the prophet who received the law and mediated God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai (Exod 19:3-6). He was also the first known writer of Scripture. The younger brother of Miriam and Aaron, Moses was born in Egypt under dangerous circumstances (Exod 1:15–2:2). The Egyptian pharaoh, fearing a rebellion, had decreed that all Hebrew boys be killed at birth. Mos...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12172,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27858,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39354,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wilderness of Zin","title_en":"Wilderness of Zin","content_ro":"<h3>ZIN, Wilderness of<\/h3>\n<p>Area lying in the northern portion of the Sinai Peninsula, while the wilderness of Sin lies in the southern portion. It is one of the four or five “wildernesses” of the Sinai Peninsula, the others being the wilderness of Paran (Gn 21:21), the wilderness of Shur (Ex 15:22), and the wilderness of Sinai (Nm 9:1) and the wilderness of Sin (Nm 33:11). These areas are not clearly defined, and there is probably some overlap.<\/p>\n<p>The area identified as the wilderness of Zin is associated with the village of Zin (Nm 34:4). The wilderness was west of Edom, southwest of the Dead Sea, and south of Judah. Within this arid area were four copious springs or oases, including Kadesh-barnea. Most of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the Sinai Desert were spent in this area. From the wilderness of Zin the spies were dispatched to spy out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-26; 32:8). Here also the rebels were sentenced to die because of their unbelief (14:22-23). Moses sinned by failing to give God the credit for bringing water out of the rock (20:1-13; 27:14), and Miriam, his sister, died and was buried here (20:1). This area was remembered as the “great and terrible wilderness” (Dt 1:19; 8:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIN, Wilderness of<\/h3>\n<p>Area lying in the northern portion of the Sinai Peninsula, while the wilderness of Sin lies in the southern portion. It is one of the four or five “wildernesses” of the Sinai Peninsula, the others being the wilderness of Paran (Gn 21:21), the wilderness of Shur (Ex 15:22), and the wilderness of Sinai (Nm 9:1) and the wilderness of Sin (Nm 33:11). These areas are not clearly defined, and there is probably some overlap.<\/p>\n<p>The area identified as the wilderness of Zin is associated with the village of Zin (Nm 34:4). The wilderness was west of Edom, southwest of the Dead Sea, and south of Judah. Within this arid area were four copious springs or oases, including Kadesh-barnea. Most of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the Sinai Desert were spent in this area. From the wilderness of Zin the spies were dispatched to spy out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-26; 32:8). Here also the rebels were sentenced to die because of their unbelief (14:22-23). Moses sinned by failing to give God the credit for bringing water out of the rock (20:1-13; 27:14), and Miriam, his sister, died and was buried here (20:1). This area was remembered as the “great and terrible wilderness” (Dt 1:19; 8:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIN, Wilderness of Area lying in the northern portion of the Sinai Peninsula, while the wilderness of Sin lies in the southern portion. It is one of the four or five “wildernesses” of the Sinai Peninsula, the others being the wilderness of Paran (Gn 21:21), the wilderness of Shur (Ex 15:22), and the wilderness of Sinai (Nm 9:1) and the wilderness of Sin (Nm 33:11). These areas are not clearly defined, and there is probably some overlap. The area identified as the wilderness of Zin is associat...","summary_en":"ZIN, Wilderness of Area lying in the northern portion of the Sinai Peninsula, while the wilderness of Sin lies in the southern portion. It is one of the four or five “wildernesses” of the Sinai Peninsula, the others being the wilderness of Paran (Gn 21:21), the wilderness of Shur (Ex 15:22), and the wilderness of Sinai (Nm 9:1) and the wilderness of Sin (Nm 33:11). These areas are not clearly defined, and there is probably some overlap. The area identified as the wilderness of Zin is associat...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39588,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>(Beginning with Nisan [Abib], the first month in the calendar of Israel)<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>Feasts and Festivals<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Day(s) and Post- (Pre-) exilic Month<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Gregorian Month<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Major References<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Passover<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>14th of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 12:1-30; Lv 23:5; Nm 9:1-5; 28:16; Dt 16:1-8<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Unleavened Bread<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>15th–21st of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:18-21; Lv 23:6-8; Nm 28:17-25; Dt 16:1-8, 16-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Firstfruits<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>22d of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 23:9-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Shavout, Harvest, Weeks)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>6th of Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May\/June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:22; Lv 23:15-21; Nm 28:26-31; Dt 16:9-12, 16-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Trumpets (Rosh Hashanah)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1st of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 23:23-25; Nm 29:1-6<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>10th of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 16:29-34; 23:26-32; Nm 29:7-11<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Tabernacles (Shelters Succoth, Booths, Ingathering)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>15th–22d of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:22; Lv 23:33-43; Nm 29:12-38; Dt 16:13-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Dedication (Lights, Hanukkah)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>25th of Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November\/December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Macc 4:41-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8; Jn 10:22<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Nicanor (Fast of Esther)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>13th of Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February\/March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Macc 7:33-49<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Purim (Lots)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>14th of Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February\/March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Est 9:21, 27-28<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel<\/h3>\n<p>(Beginning with Nisan [Abib], the first month in the calendar of Israel)<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><strong>Feasts and Festivals<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Day(s) and Post- (Pre-) exilic Month<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Gregorian Month<\/strong><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><strong>Major References<\/strong><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Passover<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>14th of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 12:1-30; Lv 23:5; Nm 9:1-5; 28:16; Dt 16:1-8<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Unleavened Bread<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>15th–21st of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:18-21; Lv 23:6-8; Nm 28:17-25; Dt 16:1-8, 16-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Firstfruits<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>22d of Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March\/April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 23:9-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Shavout, Harvest, Weeks)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>6th of Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May\/June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:22; Lv 23:15-21; Nm 28:26-31; Dt 16:9-12, 16-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Trumpets (Rosh Hashanah)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1st of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 23:23-25; Nm 29:1-6<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>10th of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Lv 16:29-34; 23:26-32; Nm 29:7-11<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Tabernacles (Shelters Succoth, Booths, Ingathering)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>15th–22d of Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September\/October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Ex 34:22; Lv 23:33-43; Nm 29:12-38; Dt 16:13-17<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Dedication (Lights, Hanukkah)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>25th of Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November\/December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Macc 4:41-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8; Jn 10:22<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Nicanor (Fast of Esther)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>13th of Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February\/March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Macc 7:33-49<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>Purim (Lots)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>14th of Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February\/March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Est 9:21, 27-28<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel (Beginning with Nisan [Abib], the first month in the calendar of Israel) Feasts and Festivals Day(s) and Post- (Pre-) exilic Month Gregorian Month Major References Passover 14th of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Ex 12:1-30; Lv 23:5; Nm 9:1-5; 28:16; Dt 16:1-8 Unleavened Bread 15th–21st of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Ex 34:18-21; Lv 23:6-8; Nm 28:17-25; Dt 16:1-8, 16-17 Firstfruits 22d of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Lv 23:9-14 Pentecost (Shavout, Harvest, Weeks) 6th o...","summary_en":"Annual Feasts and Festivals of Israel (Beginning with Nisan [Abib], the first month in the calendar of Israel) Feasts and Festivals Day(s) and Post- (Pre-) exilic Month Gregorian Month Major References Passover 14th of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Ex 12:1-30; Lv 23:5; Nm 9:1-5; 28:16; Dt 16:1-8 Unleavened Bread 15th–21st of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Ex 34:18-21; Lv 23:6-8; Nm 28:17-25; Dt 16:1-8, 16-17 Firstfruits 22d of Nisan (Abib) March\/April Lv 23:9-14 Pentecost (Shavout, Harvest, Weeks) 6th o...","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99742,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127368,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182620,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196048,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237872,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251364,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:1","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:1-14<\/strong> <em>A year after Israel’s<\/em> exodus <em>from Egypt<\/em><em>,<\/em> the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover <em>in the wilderness of Sinai<\/em>. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","summary_en":"9:1-14 A year after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the time came for Israel to celebrate their second Passover in the wilderness of Sinai. Those unable to celebrate it on time were given permission to do so a month later.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115585,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121348,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":153358,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":164886,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":170837,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":176600,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":208967,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":220493,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":226089,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":231852,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":264165,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":275709,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281341,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Paștele","title_en":"The Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Paștele<\/h3>\n<p>Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine nedospită, așa cum făcuse în plecarea grăbită din Egipt.<\/p>\n<p>La acel prim Paște, a fost jertfit un miel care a luat locul întâiului născut al fiecărei familii din Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Astfel, Paștele poartă ideea că putem fi eliberați de moarte numai printr-o jertfă care ne ia locul. Dar, deși Paștele a marcat un eveniment de o importanță extraordinară în istoria lui Israel, evenimentele Exodului nu au biruit problema universală și fundamentală a morții, problemă care izvorăște din păcat (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Mulți ani mai târziu, în jurul sărbătorii Paștelui, Isus Hristos Și-a dat viața ca „răscumpărare pentru mulți” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) și a devenit „Mielul lui Dumnezeu care ridică păcatul lumii” (John 1:29). În timp ce împărtășea ultima cină pascală cu ucenicii Săi, Isus a vorbit despre natura simbolică a vinului pe care îl împărțeau: „Acesta este sângele Meu, care confirmă legământul. . . . El este vărsat ca jertfă pentru iertarea păcatelor multora” (Matt 26:28). El întruchipează și împlinește un nou Paște: prin jertfa Sa, păcatul și moartea au fost învinse pe deplin și definitiv (vezi și Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Passover<\/h3>\n<p>The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate only unleavened bread, just as they had done in their hurried departure from Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>In that first Passover, a lamb was sacrificed that took the place of the firstborn son of every family of Israel (Exod 12:12-13, 23). Passover thus carries the notion that we can be delivered from death only by means of a sacrifice that takes our place. But while Passover marked an event of tremendous significance in Israelite history, the events of the Exodus did not conquer the universal, fundamental problem of death, a problem that stems from sin (1 Cor 15:56).<\/p>\n<p>Many years later, around the time of the Passover festival, Jesus Christ gave his life as “a ransom for many” (Matt 20:28; Mark 10:45) and became “the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). While sharing a final Passover meal with his disciples, Jesus spoke of the symbolic nature of the wine they shared: “This is my blood, which confirms the covenant. . . . It is poured out as a sacrifice to forgive the sins of many” (Matt 26:28). He embodies and enacts a new Passover: Through his sacrifice, sin and death were fully and finally defeated (see also Isa 25:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1-51; Lev 23:4-8; Num 9:1-14; 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-7; Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 5:6-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Paștele Sărbătoarea Paștelui a devenit o trăsătură centrală a practicii religioase israelite. Această sărbătoare, care celebra eliberarea evreilor din Egipt de către Dumnezeu și cruțarea lor de ultima urgie, aducătoare de moarte, trebuia comemorată anual, potrivit instrucțiunilor date în Exod (Exod 12:1-27). Paștele trebuia să fie, de-a lungul generațiilor, o amintire a lucrării mântuitoare a lui Dumnezeu. Ca atare, era o sărbătoare trăită și participativă, în care poporul mânca doar pâine ne...","summary_en":"The Passover The festival of Passover became a central feature of Israelite religious practice. This festival, which celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt and his sparing of them from the final, deadly plague, was to be commemorated on an annual basis, in accorance with the instructions given in Exodus (Exod 12:1-27). Passover was to serve as a reminder across the generations of God’s saving activity. As such, it was an enacted, participatory festival, in which the people ate...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":287104,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Crucea și Paștele","title_en":"The Cross and Passover","content_ro":"<h3>Crucea și Paștele<\/h3>\n <p>La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat.<\/p>\n <p>Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează evenimentul central al sărbătorii Paștelui (vezi Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). În secolul I, iudeii făceau în fiecare primăvară un pelerinaj la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele și pentru a reciti istoria Exodului (vezi Exod 12–15). Când Israel era eliberat din Egipt, sângele unui miel era stropit pe ușorii fiecărei case evreiești din Egipt, fapt care îi salva de la moarte pe cei dinăuntru (Exod 12). Iudeii care veneau la Ierusalim pentru a sărbători Paștele trebuiau să aducă un miel tânăr, desăvârșit, pentru jertfă (animalul nu putea fi bolnav și nu putea avea oase rupte).<\/p>\n <p>Isus a folosit ultima Sa masă de Paște pentru a arăta că moartea Sa jertfitoare avea să dea un sens nou sărbătorii (Mark 14:17-25). La răstignire, picioarele lui Isus nu au fost zdrobite, așa cum se făcea adesea, împlinindu-se astfel o regulă pascală (John 19:31-33; vezi Exod 12:46). Sângele a curs liber din rana Lui (John 19:34), arătând că viața Sa era dată în schimbul altora. După cum un miel a murit pentru a salva viața familiilor evreiești la Paștele din Egipt, tot astfel moartea Fiului lui Dumnezeu pe cruce aduce mântuire lumii.<\/p>\n <p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n <p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cross and Passover<\/h3>\n<p>At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin.<\/p>\n<p>However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death marks the central event of the Passover season (see Exod 12:43-47; Luke 22:7; 1 Cor 5:7). In the first century, Jews made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem each spring to celebrate the Passover and to reread the story of the Exodus (see Exod 12–15). When Israel was being rescued from Egypt, the blood of a lamb was sprinkled on the doorposts of each Jewish home in Egypt, an act which saved those inside from death (Exod 12). Jews who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover needed to supply a perfect young lamb for sacrifice (the animal could not be diseased or have broken bones).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus used his final Passover meal to show that his sacrificial death would give new meaning to the festival (Mark 14:17-25). At his crucifixion, Jesus’ legs were not broken, as was often done to fulfill a Passover rule (John 19:31-33; see Exod 12:46). Blood ran freely from his wound (John 19:34), showing that his life was being exchanged for others. Just as a lamb died to save the lives of Jewish families at the Passover in Egypt, so too, the death of the Son of God on the cross serves to bring salvation to the world.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 12:1–13:16; 29:38-46; Num 9:1-14; Deut 16:1-8; 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 30:1-27; Ezra 6:19-21; Isa 53:7; Ezek 45:21-22; Matt 26:2, 17-19; Mark 14:17-31; Luke 22:14-30; John 1:29, 36; John 19:17-36; Acts 8:32-35; 12:3-4; 1 Cor 5:7-8; Heb 11:28; Rev 5:5-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Crucea și Paștele La începutul Evangheliei după Ioan, Ioan Botezătorul L-a prezentat pe Isus numindu-L „Mielul lui Dumnezeu” (John 1:29, 36). Această expresie ar putea fi o trimitere la mielul de jertfă care era adus zilnic la Templu (Exod 29:38-46) sau la mielul de jertfă din Isaiah 53:7 (compară cu Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Ambele jertfe vorbeau despre salvare și iertare de păcat. Totuși, nu doar atât avea Ioan în vedere. Ioan Îl prezintă pe Isus ca Mielul pascal, a cărui moarte marchează ...","summary_en":"The Cross and Passover At the beginning of John’s Gospel, John the Baptist introduced Jesus by calling him the “Lamb of God” (John 1:29, 36). This phrase might be a reference to the sacrificial lamb that was killed daily in the Temple (Exod 29:38-46) or to the sacrificial lamb of Isaiah 53:7 (cp. Acts 8:32-35; Rev 5:5-14). Both of these sacrifices spoke of rescue and forgiveness from sin. However, this was not all that John had in mind. John presented Jesus as the Passover lamb whose death ma...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":99743,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127369,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182621,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196050,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237873,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251366,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:2","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:2-3<\/strong> The Hebrews were told to celebrate <em>the Passover at the prescribed time<\/em> (see Exod 12:6). • <em>at twilight:<\/em> The Hebrew day begins at sundown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","summary_en":"9:2-3 The Hebrews were told to celebrate the Passover at the prescribed time (see Exod 12:6). • at twilight: The Hebrew day begins at sundown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":99744,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127370,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182622,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196052,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237874,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251368,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:4","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:4-7<\/strong> When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","summary_en":"9:4-7 When it was time to celebrate the Passover, some men were prevented by the restrictions of Lev 7:20-21. Their objection arose from a desire to keep the regulation in a case where there seemed to be no good way for them to do so.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":6831,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Regulations concerning Cleanness and Uncleanness","title_en":"and Uncleanness, Regulations concerning, Cleanness","content_ro":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","summary_en":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40350,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs","title_en":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs","content_ro":"<h3>The Significance of Bitter Herbs<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed time (Nm 9:6-12). The Lamentations passage describes the prophet Jeremiah’s personal affliction. He pictures himself as suffering at the hands of the Lord who has filled him with bitterness. If the prophet’s experience could be symbolized by reference to bitter herbs, it is reasonable that Israel’s experience of slavery in Egypt might also have been symbolized in that way. After that night of the Hebrews’ deliverance from bondage, the herbs were used annually in a commemorative observance of the Passover.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Today the Samaritans use the leaves of the wild lettuce plant as bitter herbs for their Passover observance. Jews of European origin customarily use red horseradish.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Significance of Bitter Herbs<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed time (Nm 9:6-12). The Lamentations passage describes the prophet Jeremiah’s personal affliction. He pictures himself as suffering at the hands of the Lord who has filled him with bitterness. If the prophet’s experience could be symbolized by reference to bitter herbs, it is reasonable that Israel’s experience of slavery in Egypt might also have been symbolized in that way. After that night of the Hebrews’ deliverance from bondage, the herbs were used annually in a commemorative observance of the Passover.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Today the Samaritans use the leaves of the wild lettuce plant as bitter herbs for their Passover observance. Jews of European origin customarily use red horseradish.<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed ...","summary_en":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed ...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":99745,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127371,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182623,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196054,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237875,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251370,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:8","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:8<\/strong> Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","summary_en":"9:8 Moses agreed to inquire of the Lord regarding this difficult case (cp. 7:89).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":99746,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127372,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182624,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196056,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237876,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251372,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:9","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:9-14<\/strong> God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","summary_en":"9:9-14 God’s response to the quandary was to allow a makeup ceremony one month later for two special cases (see also 2 Chr 30), but with this provision he warned that the Israelites must not neglect the Passover and must celebrate it according to the regulations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":39808,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"The Hebrew Calendar","title_en":"The Hebrew Calendar","content_ro":"<h3>The Hebrew Calendar<\/h3>\n<p>A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April.<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Month<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Today’s Calendar<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Bible Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Israel’s Holidays<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 1 Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March–April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Passover (Leviticus 23:5)<\/p><p>Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)<\/p><p>Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 2 Iyyar (Ziv)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>April–May<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:1, 37<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 3 Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May–June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 8:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Weeks or Harvest) (Leviticus 23:16)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 4 Tammuz<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>June–July<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 5 Ab<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>July–August<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 6 Elul<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>August–September<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 6:15<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 7 Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September–October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 8:2<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Trumpets (New Year’s Day, Rosh Hashanah) (Leviticus 23:24; Numbers 29:1)<\/p><p>Day of Atonement (Leviticus 23:27)<\/p><p>Tabernacles (Shelters, Booths) (Leviticus 23:34)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 8 Marcheshvan (Bul)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>October–November<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:38<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 9 Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November–December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Dedication (Hanukkah) (John 10:22)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>10 Tebeth<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>December–January<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 2:16<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>11 Shebat<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>January–February<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Zechariah 1:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>12 Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February–March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 3:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Purim (Esther 9:24-32)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>The Hebrew Calendar<\/h3>\n<p>A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April.<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Month<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Today’s Calendar<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Bible Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Israel’s Holidays<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 1 Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March–April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Passover (Leviticus 23:5)<\/p><p>Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)<\/p><p>Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 2 Iyyar (Ziv)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>April–May<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:1, 37<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 3 Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May–June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 8:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Weeks or Harvest) (Leviticus 23:16)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 4 Tammuz<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>June–July<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 5 Ab<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>July–August<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 6 Elul<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>August–September<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 6:15<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 7 Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September–October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 8:2<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Trumpets (New Year’s Day, Rosh Hashanah) (Leviticus 23:24; Numbers 29:1)<\/p><p>Day of Atonement (Leviticus 23:27)<\/p><p>Tabernacles (Shelters, Booths) (Leviticus 23:34)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 8 Marcheshvan (Bul)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>October–November<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:38<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 9 Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November–December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Dedication (Hanukkah) (John 10:22)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>10 Tebeth<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>December–January<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 2:16<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>11 Shebat<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>January–February<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Zechariah 1:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>12 Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February–March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 3:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Purim (Esther 9:24-32)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"The Hebrew Calendar A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April. Month Today’s Calendar Bible Reference Israel’s Holidays 1 Nisan (Abib) March–April Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1 Passover (Leviticus 23:5)Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10) 2 Iyyar (Ziv) April–May 1 Kings 6:1, 37 Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11) 3 Sivan May–June Esther 8:9 Pentecos...","summary_en":"The Hebrew Calendar A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April. Month Today’s Calendar Bible Reference Israel’s Holidays 1 Nisan (Abib) March–April Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1 Passover (Leviticus 23:5)Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10) 2 Iyyar (Ziv) April–May 1 Kings 6:1, 37 Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11) 3 Sivan May–June Esther 8:9 Pentecos...","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":5492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bone","title_en":"Bone","content_ro":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","summary_en":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12531,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Food and Food Preparation","title_en":"Food and Food Preparation","content_ro":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION<\/h3>\n<p>Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare with neighboring nations (2 Kgs 6:25), and intermittent plagues of locusts ravaged large areas.<\/p>\n<p>Food was more plentiful in Palestine (described as a “land flowing with milk and honey”) than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow cultivation of the soil, however, made crops highly reliant on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were far less susceptible to weather variations, because the Nile provided a dependable source of water.<\/p>\n<p>Food shortages were considered warnings or punishment from God (Lam 4:9, 11; Am 4:6-9) to teach the Hebrews that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite scarcity, famine, or even death (Dt 8:3; Hb 3:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>The staples of nomadic Hebrews were milk, curds, and cheese. As the people became more stationary, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. Grain would sometimes be grown for a season, and then after the harvest, the tribes would move their flocks to other pastures and find other arable land. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times not only of solemnity but also of rejoicing and great feasting. Victories were also celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food obtained from the camp of the vanquished enemy.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>• Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>• Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>• Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>• Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DairyProducts\">Dairy Products<\/p>\n<p>Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet (see Jgs 4:19). Goat’s milk was most frequently used, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available (Gn 32:15; Dt 32:14; Prv 27:27).<\/p>\n<p>Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the previously used skins and the movement as it was transported. That movement of the pouch (often made from a cow’s stomach, containing the enzyme rennin used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his extraordinary guests (Gn 18:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for curds <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">chena<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also translated “butter” (Jb 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed out. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept indefinitely, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in arid regions where food was scarce.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GrainCrops\">Grain Crops<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned food in the Bible is bread. The term refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Ex 9:31-32).<\/p>\n<p>An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-20th century <span>BC<\/span>, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and it is probable that it was served with every meal. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer (an inferior form of wheat), since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford (Gn 18:6; Ez 16:13, 19). In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports in the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Jgs 7:13; 2 Kgs 4:42) and barley cakes (Ez 4:12) were eaten by the average laborer. Jesus miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (Jn 6:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Millet, a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than two feet (.6 meter) high, and spelt, a type of wheat, were also used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields.<\/p>\n<p>The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Jesus and his disciples did (Lk 6:1). To perform this act on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden.<\/p>\n<p>Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another simple method of preparation (Jos 5:11; 1 Sm 17:17). It formed a quick and easy meal for laborers or kings (Ru 2:14; 1 Sm 25:18; 2 Sm 17:28). Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys.<\/p>\n<p>Bread making was a strenuous task. Mortars, pestles, and simple mills with upper and lower stones were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt around 2900 <span>BC<\/span>. These primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one was compelled to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk.<\/p>\n<p>When the flour had been prepared, water was added and the mixture was kneaded in a special trough. The dough could then be made immediately into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Gn 19:3). These flat cakes or wafers were often baked on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small conical ovens, or in larger communal ovens. Leaven was added to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. The flour meal was also mixed with a porridge made of lentil beans in order to stretch the food supply.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AnimalProducts\">Animal Products<\/p>\n<p>The introduction of meat as part of the diet seems to have coincided with the time when Noah and his family left the ark (Gn 9:3). After this time, however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. So in biblical times the peasant had a simple, somewhat monotonous diet, while the rich feasted on meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. As a result, meat was a luxury item that the poor would rarely enjoy except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering (Ex 12:8). Although it was clearly uneconomic to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honored guest (2 Sm 12:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main source of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game (Gn 27:3, 9, 19). The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf were reserved for occasions of great festivity (Mt 22:4).<\/p>\n<p>The use of meat for sacrifice was given definitive form in the provisions of Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law forbade anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day (Lv 22:28). Another prohibition, perhaps directed at pagan Canaanite sacrificial rituals, would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk (Dt 14:21). Mosaic law was emphatic in prohibiting the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to God to atone for human sin (Lv 17:11). In the Mosaic law, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were considered unclean and were therefore forbidden for food, principally on hygienic grounds (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient world, meat was usually boiled or stewed. Roasting an ox or a kid would usually occur only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact that hunting was enjoyed by all who were able to participate, wild game provided only a minor part of the diet. Among the game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23). It is probable that pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges, although the precise quantities of food that these birds provided is not certain (Gn 15:9; Ex 16:13). Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten (2 Esd 1:30), and eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early Christian times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Dt 22:6-7; cf. Is 10:14).<\/p>\n<p>Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon whichever nation had control of the coastline. In the postexilic period the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3). In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable (Lv 11:9-12).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mk 7:19). As Christianity spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another Christian with a more sensitive conscience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InsectsandTheirFoodProducts\">Insects and Their Food Products<\/p>\n<p>Wild honey was found in Palestine, but there is no evidence of bee-keeping. Egyptians, however, did practice beekeeping at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1; liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Dt 32:13). It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Lv 2:11), honey was prized as a delicacy. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.<\/p>\n<p>Locusts were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. They are one of the few insects mentioned as a permissible source of food (Lv 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. Locusts and wild honey formed John the Baptist’s basic diet in the wilderness (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and have some mineral content.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"VegetablesandSeasoning\">Vegetables and Seasoning<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people wandering in the Sinai wilderness bemoaned the loss of the flavorful vegetables they had become accustomed to during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons (possibly watermelons), leeks, onions, and garlic (Nm 11:5). Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine (particularly in the Gaza). When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Is 1:8). Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Sm 17:28). Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> and were used extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.<\/p>\n<p>In times of hunger the husks of the carob tree, normally fed to cattle, could be used for food. These would have been most acceptable to the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). There were many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need (Prv 15:17). In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha rectified the situation by adding meal to the pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). While there is no actual record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering (Ex 12:8; Nm 9:11), mint and cummin were most probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Mt 23:23; Lk 11:42).<\/p>\n<p>Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland character of typical Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact (Nm 18:19). In the Levitical sacrificial ritual, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24).<\/p>\n<p>The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a minute seed to the height of 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Mt 13:31-32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7). Perhaps the most popular and widely used spice, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavoring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasoning was widespread in antiquity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FruitsNutsandWine\">Fruits, Nuts, and Wine<\/p>\n<p>Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could sufficiently supply a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled in brine and eaten with bread, but the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was extracted from olives by a simple process: for the finest quality oil, olives were picked before fully ripe and then crushed by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. The oil was then trodden out, probably in the same vat used for grapes (Mi 6:15), which were harvested approximately four weeks later.<\/p>\n<p>An oil mill was developed subsequently, and the heavy upper grinding stone was turned by two people. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars.<\/p>\n<p>Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy (Is 28:4; Mi 7:1). The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the firstfruits of the fig tree (Hos 9:10). Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction (Jer 24:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to use when traveling (1 Sm 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chr 12:40). Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them (2 Kgs 20:7; Is 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small, figlike fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was slightly incised, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Am 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travelers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food (see Jgs 4:5; Ps 92:12; Jl 1:12; Jn 12:13).<\/p>\n<p>Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Ex 28:33) and as an exotic drink (Sg 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:5) was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as we know it today. Nuts were used for additional flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons (Gn 43:11).<\/p>\n<p>Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins (Nm 6:3; 1 Sm 25:18) or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cup-bearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests (Gn 40:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavoring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Sg 8:2; Is 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking,” which reveals much of the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet (Gn 43:34; Jgs 9:13; Lk 5:34).<\/p>\n<p>Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment; after that the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals; Bread; Family Life and Relations; Leaven; Meals, Significance of; Plants; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","summary_en":"FOOD AND FOOD PREPARATION Substances required by the body to sustain life, and the methods of making them edible. Food consumed in Bible times included bread, milk products, fruit, meat, and fish. Food was also offered sacrificially or given as gifts. The availability of food was a perpetual concern because of the recurrent scarcity: droughts were frequent (2 Kgs 4:38; Jer 14:1, 4-6; Hg 1:11), hailstorms wrought devastation among crops (Hg 2:17), farming was frequently interrupted by warfare ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30561,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40348,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs","title_en":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs","content_ro":"<h3>The Significance of Bitter Herbs<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed time (Nm 9:6-12). The Lamentations passage describes the prophet Jeremiah’s personal affliction. He pictures himself as suffering at the hands of the Lord who has filled him with bitterness. If the prophet’s experience could be symbolized by reference to bitter herbs, it is reasonable that Israel’s experience of slavery in Egypt might also have been symbolized in that way. After that night of the Hebrews’ deliverance from bondage, the herbs were used annually in a commemorative observance of the Passover.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Today the Samaritans use the leaves of the wild lettuce plant as bitter herbs for their Passover observance. Jews of European origin customarily use red horseradish.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Significance of Bitter Herbs<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed time (Nm 9:6-12). The Lamentations passage describes the prophet Jeremiah’s personal affliction. He pictures himself as suffering at the hands of the Lord who has filled him with bitterness. If the prophet’s experience could be symbolized by reference to bitter herbs, it is reasonable that Israel’s experience of slavery in Egypt might also have been symbolized in that way. After that night of the Hebrews’ deliverance from bondage, the herbs were used annually in a commemorative observance of the Passover.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Today the Samaritans use the leaves of the wild lettuce plant as bitter herbs for their Passover observance. Jews of European origin customarily use red horseradish.<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed ...","summary_en":"The Significance of Bitter Herbs The significance of the bitter herbs is not explained in the Exodus narrative. In the traditional interpretation, the herbs symbolize the bitterness of the Hebrews’ experience of Egyptian bondage. The two other references to bitter herbs (Nm 9:11; Lam 3:15) shed no direct light upon the kind of plant or its significance. The Numbers passage specifies how the Passover commemoration was to be celebrated by persons unable to participate at the normally appointed ...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":22693,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99747,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127373,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141165,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182625,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196058,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237877,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251374,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:12","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:12<\/strong> The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","summary_en":"9:12 The bones of the Passover lamb were not to be broken (see Exod 12:46; Ps 34:20; John 19:32-36; cp. John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7). The apostle John made reference to this instruction when reporting that Jesus’ legs were not broken on the cross (John 19:36).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":99748,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127374,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141167,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182626,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196060,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237878,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251376,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:13","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:13<\/strong> If they ignored the required <em>Passover<\/em><em>,<\/em> they must <em>be cut off from the community.<\/em> It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","summary_en":"9:13 If they ignored the required Passover, they must be cut off from the community. It is not clear whether this refers to the death penalty or banishment (see study note on Lev 7:20-21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":99749,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127375,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141169,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182627,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237879,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251378,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:14","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:14<\/strong> <em>Foreigners<\/em> who lived among the Hebrews and wanted <em>to celebrate the Passover<\/em> could do so by following <em>the same laws<\/em><em>,<\/em> but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","summary_en":"9:14 Foreigners who lived among the Hebrews and wanted to celebrate the Passover could do so by following the same laws, but circumcision was required for males who desired to eat the Passover meal (see also Exod 12:48-49).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":27861,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36592,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tabernacle","title_en":"Tabernacle","content_ro":"<h3>TABERNACLE<\/h3>\n<p>Place of worship during the earliest years of the history of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Names for the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The Tabernacle and Its Furniture<\/p>\n<p>• The Tabernacle Proper<\/p>\n<p>• The Outer Court and Its Furnishings<\/p>\n<p>• The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was the precursor of the temple during most of the period between the formation of Israel at Sinai and its final establishment in the Promised Land in the early period of the monarchy. A portable sanctuary in keeping with the demand for easy mobility, it was the symbol of God’s presence with his people and, therefore, of his availability, as well as a place where his will was communicated. At an early period it was anticipated that, when peace and security had been secured, a permanent national shrine would be established (Dt 12:10-11). This was not realized until the time of Solomon, when the temple was erected (2 Sm 7:10-13; 1 Kgs 5:1-5). Historical events, as well as the similarities in construction and underlying theology, illustrate the close connection between the tabernacle and temple.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NamesfortheTabernacle\">Names for the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>Several words and descriptive phrases are used:<\/p>\n<p>1. “Sacred residence,” “sanctuary,“ or “holy place” (Ex 25:8; Lv 10:17-18) derive from the verb “to be holy.”<\/p>\n<li>2. “The tent” occurs 19 times and is also found in expressions such as “the tent of the testimony” (Nm 9:15), “the tent of the Lord” (1 Kgs 2:28-30), “the house of the tent” (1 Chr 9:23), and “the tent of meeting” (e.g., Ex 33:7). The last name appears approximately 130 times. The word involves the concept of meeting by appointment and designates the tabernacle as the place where God met with Moses and his people to make known his will.<\/li>\n<li>3. “Dwelling place” is the literal meaning of “tabernacle.” In Exodus 25:9 the word indicates the whole tabernacle (including the outer court), but in Exodus 26:1 it refers to the tabernacle proper (that included the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies). A variant of this is “the tabernacle of the testimony” (Ex 38:21; <span>nlt<\/span> “Tabernacle of the Covenant”), which, with other expressions like “the tent of the testimony,” stresses the presence of the two tablets of the law.<\/li>\n<li>4. “The house of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Ex 23:19).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The three-part construction of the tabernacle, composed of a general area and two restricted areas, was not unique. In other developed religions that included an organized priesthood there were three main levels of approach: one for all members of the community; one for the priests generally; and one for the chief religious leaders, which was an inner sanctuary, conceived as the dwelling place of the deity. Excavations of heathen sanctuaries in Palestine and Syria in the pre-Israelite period have revealed this type of divided sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>There is also widespread evidence of the use of portable, often complex, prefabricated structures during the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, usually as either staterooms for kings and other high dignitaries, or as sanctuaries. Rulers of settled communities used these structures when traveling to other areas within their kingdoms (e.g., Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Canaan). Also, nomadic or seminomadic peoples, such as the Midianites, used portable sanctuaries. In pre-Mosaic Egypt, craftsmen used techniques similar to those used in the construction of the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTabernacleandItsFurniture\">The Tabernacle and Its Furniture<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus (Ex 25–40) describes the tabernacle and its furnishings in detail. The materials used included items ranging from precious to common materials. Three metals are mentioned in descending order of importance: gold, copper, and silver. Gold alone was employed in the principal sanctuary furnishings. The total amount of metals used was approximately one ton (.9 metric ton) of gold, three of copper, and four of silver (38:24-31). The relatively large amount of silver came from an offering (30:11-16), which augmented the silver and gold already given by the Egyptians (12:35).<\/p>\n<p>Significantly, in God’s building specifications, the starting point was the furniture of the inner sanctuary (the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies). In the actual construction, this furniture was made after the tabernacle itself, presumably so that it could be immediately and adequately housed (Ex 25:9–27:19; cf. 36:8–37:28).<\/p>\n<p>The first item listed was the ark, the only furniture in the Holy of Holies. It was a wooden box sheathed in gold, approximately three and three-quarters feet (1.1 meters) long, with a width and height of two and a quarter feet (.7 meter). The supreme symbol of the covenant relationship between God and Israel, it was often called “the ark of the covenant of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Dt 10:8). Unlike contemporary arks in some neighboring countries, it contained no representation of the deity, only the Ten Commandments (Ex 25:16), a jar of manna (16:33), and Aaron’s rod (Nm 17:10)—all symbolic of various aspects of God’s provision (see Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was transported by two poles that passed through rings attached to each lower corner (Ex 25:13-15). These poles, left in place, projected underneath the veil into the Holy Place, serving as a reminder of the presence of the unseen ark.<\/p>\n<p>Resting upon the ark was the mercy seat (<span>nlt<\/span> “atonement cover”), a rectangular slab of solid gold, to which were attached two cherubim. The inward-looking cherubim and the mercy seat formed a throne for the invisible God (Ex 25:22), who is frequently described as enthroned above or upon the cherubim (Pss 80:1; 99:1). The noun “mercy seat” comes from a verb meaning “to make atonement.” The mercy seat was sprinkled with blood at the climax of the annual Day of Atonement (Lv 16:14). The fact that the ark was placed <em>under<\/em> the mercy seat (Ex 25:21) signifies that the law was under God’s protection and explains the references to the ark as his footstool (e.g., Ps 132:7). Like the cherubim in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24), those in the Holy of Holies probably had a similar protective function. In the ancient world, symbolic winged creatures like the cherubim were frequently placed as guardians of thrones and important buildings.<\/p>\n<p>Like the ark, the portable table of the bread of the Presence (Ex 25:30) was made of acacia wood overlaid with gold. It was marginally smaller, with a length of three feet (.9 meter), a width of one and a half feet (.5 meter) and a height of two and a quarter feet (.7 meter). The various auxiliary vessels and implements are detailed (v 29); presumably the dishes would be used for carrying the bread. On each Sabbath day, 12 loaves, symbolizing God’s provision for the 12 tribes of Israel, were placed in two rows on the table (Lv 24:5-9). The table was located in the Holy Place, on the north side.<\/p>\n<p>On the south side was the seven-branched golden lampstand (Ex 25:31-39; 37:17-24; 40:24). It was the most impressive item of furniture in the Holy Place; like the cherubim and the mercy seat, it was made of pure gold. Six golden branches, three on either side, extended from a central shaft, and the whole lampstand was ornamented with almond flowers. From the biblical evidence, it is not clear whether the lampstand gave continuous illumination (Ex 27:20; Lv 24:2) or night light only (1 Sm 3:3 in most versions). Leviticus 24:4 strongly supports the former, and the reference in 1 Samuel probably reflects the laxity that had crept in during the period of the judges. In Scripture, the golden lampstand symbolizes the continuing witness of the covenant community (Zec 4:1-7; Rv 2:1). The precise attention to the smallest detail is well illustrated in the listing of the supplementary items, all made of pure gold, required for the servicing of the lamps. Without this precise attention, the light would soon grow dim, and the sanctuary itself be defiled by carbon deposits (Ex 25:38). Moreover, only the best-quality olive oil was used, thus ensuring the brightest possible light (27:20).<\/p>\n<p>The altar of incense (Ex 30:1-10) may have been deliberately played down to give greater prominence to the sacrificial altar in the outer court, which is frequently referred to as <em>“the<\/em> altar.” In order to distinguish the altar of incense from the bronze altar of sacrifice, the former was called “the golden altar” (40:5). The altar of incense was located in the Holy Place, immediately opposite the ark in the Holy of Holies but just outside the veil, between the table of the bread of the Presence and the lampstand. Made of acacia wood overlaid with gold, it was 18 inches (45.7 centimeters) square and 3 feet (.9 meter) high, with horns and a golden molding around the four sides. Like the ark, it was made readily portable by the provision of rings and carrying poles. The altar was used for the offering of incense every morning and evening and for anointing the horns for the yearly atonement (30:7-10). The incense from a special recipe was forbidden for secular use. Originally, incense indicated something that ascended from a sacrifice, a pleasing aroma to God. Incense acknowledged God in worship (Mal 1:11) and at an early date signified the prayers of the godly (Ps 141:2). It also concealed God from human eyes (Lv 16:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTabernacleProper\">The Tabernacle Proper<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was fundamentally a tent structure supported on a rigid framework. As with most of the other items, a triplication of detail underlines the importance of the tabernacle proper. The specifications are given in Exodus 26, the construction in Exodus 36:8-38, and the final erection in Exodus 40:16-19. The overall dimensions were approximately 45 feet (13.7 meters) long, 15 feet (4.6 meters) wide, and 15 feet high.<\/p>\n<p>The basic framework was a series of upright supports, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and 2½ feet (.7 meters) wide, and each standing on two silver bases (Ex 26:15-25). Scholars used to think these supports or frames were solid planks of acacia wood, but most modern scholars accept that each comprised two upright sides connected by horizontal pieces like a ladder. Such sections would be considerably stronger, would keep their shape better, and would allow a view of the beautiful inner layer of curtains from within the sanctuary. On the south and north sides were 20 such frames, with 6 more at the western end. In addition, on the western side were two corner pieces to which all the walls were attached by clasps (vv 23-25). A series of bars, which passed through gold rings attached to each upright frame, provided further security and alignment (vv 26-29). There were five such bars on each of the three sides. The central one on both the south and the north sides extended the entire length; the other four probably extended halfway, so that each frame was effectively secured by three bars. All the wooden sections were sheathed in gold.<\/p>\n<p>Over this framework several layers of coverings formed the top, sides, and back of the tabernacle. The first layer of ten linen curtains was dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and embroidered with cherubim (Ex 26:1-6; 36:8-13). Each measured 42 feet by 6 feet (12.8 meters by 1.8 meters). Pairs joined along their length formed five sets of curtains. The two large curtains were themselves attached with 50 golden clasps that passed through a similar number of loops in each. Probably the curtains were stretched over the structure like a tablecloth.<\/p>\n<p>Eleven curtains or tarpaulins of goat hair, each 45 feet by 6 feet (13.7 meters by 1.8 meters), formed the next layer. These were divided into two sets by joining together five and six curtains respectively, and were linked using a similar method as the under curtain, except that bronze clasps instead of gold were used. The extra length of the goat-hair tarpaulins provided an overlap to protect the under curtain, and the larger tarpaulin overlapped at both the front and the rear of the tabernacle (Ex 26:7-9, 12-13). Two further layers ensured complete weatherproofing, one of ram’s skins dyed red and one of goatskins.<\/p>\n<p>A veil made of the same material as the under curtaining divided the sanctuary and hung under the golden clasps that joined the two curtains, supported by four pillars of acacia wood plated with gold and resting in silver bases. The cherubim on both the veil and the curtains were symbolic guardians of the sanctuary. The positioning of the veil made the Holy of Holies a perfect cube of 15 feet (4.6 meters). The layers of overlapping material and the attention given to the joints emphasizes the darkness of the innermost shrine. God was surrounded by darkness, carefully isolated from any unauthorized sight (Ps 97:2). The Holy Place occupied an area 30 feet by 15 feet (9.1 meters by 4.6 meters), exactly twice the area of the Holy of Holies. A screen made from the same fabric as the main curtain stood between the Holy Place and the outer court and hung from golden hooks on five posts of acacia wood, overlaid with gold and resting on bronze sockets. There is no mention of embroidered seraphim on this section, which formed the tabernacle’s eastern wall.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle, while probably having a somewhat squat appearance suggestive of strength, could be easily dismantled, transported, and reassembled. By the standards of that age, it was a fit dwelling place for God, constructed by the best human skills and the highest quality materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOuterCourtandItsFurnishings\">The Outer Court and Its Furnishings<\/p>\n<p>The court of the tabernacle was a rectangle 150 feet (45.7 meters) long on the north and south sides and 75 feet (22.9 meters) wide on the east and west (Ex 27:9-18; 38:9-19). The tabernacle itself was at the western end. Curtains of fine-twined linen 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high screened the entire tabernacle area. In the eastern section, there was a central entrance, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide. An embroidered curtain of the same height screened this doorway, which was probably recessed to facilitate entrance on either side. Silver rods supported all the curtains. These rods passed through silver hooks attached to the silver-plated posts that rested on bronze bases (38:17).<\/p>\n<p>The altar of burnt offering (Ex 27:1-8; 38:1-7), at the eastern end of the court adjacent to the entrance (40:29), was a reminder that there could be no approach to God except by the place of sacrifice. Seven feet (2.1 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high, it was small in comparison to the gigantic altar in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 4:1). Basically, it was a hollow wooden framework overlaid with bronze, light enough to be carried on bronze-plated poles that passed through bronze rings at each corner. The grating (Ex 27:4-5) was probably inside the altar at the middle, although some scholars believe that it extended around the lower, outer sides of the altar, to provide draft and to allow the sacrificial blood to flow to the base of the altar. The horns, possibly symbolizing the sacrificial victims, could be used to tether the animals about to be sacrificed. In Israel, a person could claim sanctuary by clinging to the horns of the altar (e.g., 1 Kgs 1:50), with the possible symbolism that he was offering himself as a sacrifice to God and so claiming his protection. The lower part of the altar may have been partly filled with earth to absorb the blood (Ex 20:24). All the accessories were bronze: ash buckets, shovels for removing the ashes and filling the base with earth, basins for the blood, carcass hooks, and fire pans (27:3).<\/p>\n<p>No specifications concerning the size of the laver (<span>nlt<\/span> “washbasin”) have survived (Ex 30:17-20; 38:8). It was made from the mirrors of the women who served at the entrance to the court. The laver stood between the altar of sacrifice and the tabernacle. Failure to wash at the laver prior to ministering was punishable by death—a solemn reminder of the need for cleanliness and obedience before undertaking any task for God. The bronze pedestal may have been merely a support for the laver, but possibly it incorporated a lower basin in which the priests could wash their feet.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConstructionandConsecrationoftheTabernacle\">The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>The God-given specifications required skills beyond the capabilities of Moses and Aaron. Prominent in the construction were Bezalel and Oholiab (Ex 30:1-11), with a large supporting group of experts, who must have learned their craftsmanship in Egypt. In a remarkable community effort, the Israelites gave so generously that the flow of gifts had to be stopped (35:20-24; 36:4-7). In addition, many gave of their special skills (35:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>When all the items had been completed and placed in position (Ex 40:1-33), every piece except the mercy seat and the cherubim was anointed with special oil (30:22-33; 40:9-11) and symbolically consecrated for its particular function. The climax came when the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle (40:34). He came to be present among his people, and thereafter the cloud by day and fire by night provided reassurance concerning his presence and guidance. Yet there could be no laxity in approaching him, and even Moses was excluded from the Holy of Holies. The tabernacle was erected exactly one year after the deliverance from Egypt and a mere nine months after the Sinai revelation.<\/p>\n<p>Thereafter, when Israel camped, the Levites surrounded the tabernacle on three sides (Nm 1:53), with the families of Moses and Aaron occupying the remaining eastern side (Nm 3:14-38). This prevented any unauthorized intrusion into the sacred area. When the tabernacle was moved, the dismantlement was carefully regulated (4:5-15). The Kohathites were responsible for transporting the more sacred items, using the carrying poles; the Gershonites dealt with all the soft furnishings, the altar of sacrifice, and its accessories; and the Merarites carried the hard furnishings, such as the frames, bars, and bases. Even on the march, the tabernacle remained central, with six tribes preceding and the remaining six following (Nm 2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TABERNACLE<\/h3>\n<p>Place of worship during the earliest years of the history of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Names for the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The Tabernacle and Its Furniture<\/p>\n<p>• The Tabernacle Proper<\/p>\n<p>• The Outer Court and Its Furnishings<\/p>\n<p>• The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was the precursor of the temple during most of the period between the formation of Israel at Sinai and its final establishment in the Promised Land in the early period of the monarchy. A portable sanctuary in keeping with the demand for easy mobility, it was the symbol of God’s presence with his people and, therefore, of his availability, as well as a place where his will was communicated. At an early period it was anticipated that, when peace and security had been secured, a permanent national shrine would be established (Dt 12:10-11). This was not realized until the time of Solomon, when the temple was erected (2 Sm 7:10-13; 1 Kgs 5:1-5). Historical events, as well as the similarities in construction and underlying theology, illustrate the close connection between the tabernacle and temple.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NamesfortheTabernacle\">Names for the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>Several words and descriptive phrases are used:<\/p>\n<p>1. “Sacred residence,” “sanctuary,“ or “holy place” (Ex 25:8; Lv 10:17-18) derive from the verb “to be holy.”<\/p>\n<li>2. “The tent” occurs 19 times and is also found in expressions such as “the tent of the testimony” (Nm 9:15), “the tent of the Lord” (1 Kgs 2:28-30), “the house of the tent” (1 Chr 9:23), and “the tent of meeting” (e.g., Ex 33:7). The last name appears approximately 130 times. The word involves the concept of meeting by appointment and designates the tabernacle as the place where God met with Moses and his people to make known his will.<\/li>\n<li>3. “Dwelling place” is the literal meaning of “tabernacle.” In Exodus 25:9 the word indicates the whole tabernacle (including the outer court), but in Exodus 26:1 it refers to the tabernacle proper (that included the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies). A variant of this is “the tabernacle of the testimony” (Ex 38:21; <span>nlt<\/span> “Tabernacle of the Covenant”), which, with other expressions like “the tent of the testimony,” stresses the presence of the two tablets of the law.<\/li>\n<li>4. “The house of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Ex 23:19).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The three-part construction of the tabernacle, composed of a general area and two restricted areas, was not unique. In other developed religions that included an organized priesthood there were three main levels of approach: one for all members of the community; one for the priests generally; and one for the chief religious leaders, which was an inner sanctuary, conceived as the dwelling place of the deity. Excavations of heathen sanctuaries in Palestine and Syria in the pre-Israelite period have revealed this type of divided sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>There is also widespread evidence of the use of portable, often complex, prefabricated structures during the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, usually as either staterooms for kings and other high dignitaries, or as sanctuaries. Rulers of settled communities used these structures when traveling to other areas within their kingdoms (e.g., Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Canaan). Also, nomadic or seminomadic peoples, such as the Midianites, used portable sanctuaries. In pre-Mosaic Egypt, craftsmen used techniques similar to those used in the construction of the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTabernacleandItsFurniture\">The Tabernacle and Its Furniture<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus (Ex 25–40) describes the tabernacle and its furnishings in detail. The materials used included items ranging from precious to common materials. Three metals are mentioned in descending order of importance: gold, copper, and silver. Gold alone was employed in the principal sanctuary furnishings. The total amount of metals used was approximately one ton (.9 metric ton) of gold, three of copper, and four of silver (38:24-31). The relatively large amount of silver came from an offering (30:11-16), which augmented the silver and gold already given by the Egyptians (12:35).<\/p>\n<p>Significantly, in God’s building specifications, the starting point was the furniture of the inner sanctuary (the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies). In the actual construction, this furniture was made after the tabernacle itself, presumably so that it could be immediately and adequately housed (Ex 25:9–27:19; cf. 36:8–37:28).<\/p>\n<p>The first item listed was the ark, the only furniture in the Holy of Holies. It was a wooden box sheathed in gold, approximately three and three-quarters feet (1.1 meters) long, with a width and height of two and a quarter feet (.7 meter). The supreme symbol of the covenant relationship between God and Israel, it was often called “the ark of the covenant of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Dt 10:8). Unlike contemporary arks in some neighboring countries, it contained no representation of the deity, only the Ten Commandments (Ex 25:16), a jar of manna (16:33), and Aaron’s rod (Nm 17:10)—all symbolic of various aspects of God’s provision (see Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was transported by two poles that passed through rings attached to each lower corner (Ex 25:13-15). These poles, left in place, projected underneath the veil into the Holy Place, serving as a reminder of the presence of the unseen ark.<\/p>\n<p>Resting upon the ark was the mercy seat (<span>nlt<\/span> “atonement cover”), a rectangular slab of solid gold, to which were attached two cherubim. The inward-looking cherubim and the mercy seat formed a throne for the invisible God (Ex 25:22), who is frequently described as enthroned above or upon the cherubim (Pss 80:1; 99:1). The noun “mercy seat” comes from a verb meaning “to make atonement.” The mercy seat was sprinkled with blood at the climax of the annual Day of Atonement (Lv 16:14). The fact that the ark was placed <em>under<\/em> the mercy seat (Ex 25:21) signifies that the law was under God’s protection and explains the references to the ark as his footstool (e.g., Ps 132:7). Like the cherubim in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24), those in the Holy of Holies probably had a similar protective function. In the ancient world, symbolic winged creatures like the cherubim were frequently placed as guardians of thrones and important buildings.<\/p>\n<p>Like the ark, the portable table of the bread of the Presence (Ex 25:30) was made of acacia wood overlaid with gold. It was marginally smaller, with a length of three feet (.9 meter), a width of one and a half feet (.5 meter) and a height of two and a quarter feet (.7 meter). The various auxiliary vessels and implements are detailed (v 29); presumably the dishes would be used for carrying the bread. On each Sabbath day, 12 loaves, symbolizing God’s provision for the 12 tribes of Israel, were placed in two rows on the table (Lv 24:5-9). The table was located in the Holy Place, on the north side.<\/p>\n<p>On the south side was the seven-branched golden lampstand (Ex 25:31-39; 37:17-24; 40:24). It was the most impressive item of furniture in the Holy Place; like the cherubim and the mercy seat, it was made of pure gold. Six golden branches, three on either side, extended from a central shaft, and the whole lampstand was ornamented with almond flowers. From the biblical evidence, it is not clear whether the lampstand gave continuous illumination (Ex 27:20; Lv 24:2) or night light only (1 Sm 3:3 in most versions). Leviticus 24:4 strongly supports the former, and the reference in 1 Samuel probably reflects the laxity that had crept in during the period of the judges. In Scripture, the golden lampstand symbolizes the continuing witness of the covenant community (Zec 4:1-7; Rv 2:1). The precise attention to the smallest detail is well illustrated in the listing of the supplementary items, all made of pure gold, required for the servicing of the lamps. Without this precise attention, the light would soon grow dim, and the sanctuary itself be defiled by carbon deposits (Ex 25:38). Moreover, only the best-quality olive oil was used, thus ensuring the brightest possible light (27:20).<\/p>\n<p>The altar of incense (Ex 30:1-10) may have been deliberately played down to give greater prominence to the sacrificial altar in the outer court, which is frequently referred to as <em>“the<\/em> altar.” In order to distinguish the altar of incense from the bronze altar of sacrifice, the former was called “the golden altar” (40:5). The altar of incense was located in the Holy Place, immediately opposite the ark in the Holy of Holies but just outside the veil, between the table of the bread of the Presence and the lampstand. Made of acacia wood overlaid with gold, it was 18 inches (45.7 centimeters) square and 3 feet (.9 meter) high, with horns and a golden molding around the four sides. Like the ark, it was made readily portable by the provision of rings and carrying poles. The altar was used for the offering of incense every morning and evening and for anointing the horns for the yearly atonement (30:7-10). The incense from a special recipe was forbidden for secular use. Originally, incense indicated something that ascended from a sacrifice, a pleasing aroma to God. Incense acknowledged God in worship (Mal 1:11) and at an early date signified the prayers of the godly (Ps 141:2). It also concealed God from human eyes (Lv 16:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTabernacleProper\">The Tabernacle Proper<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was fundamentally a tent structure supported on a rigid framework. As with most of the other items, a triplication of detail underlines the importance of the tabernacle proper. The specifications are given in Exodus 26, the construction in Exodus 36:8-38, and the final erection in Exodus 40:16-19. The overall dimensions were approximately 45 feet (13.7 meters) long, 15 feet (4.6 meters) wide, and 15 feet high.<\/p>\n<p>The basic framework was a series of upright supports, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and 2½ feet (.7 meters) wide, and each standing on two silver bases (Ex 26:15-25). Scholars used to think these supports or frames were solid planks of acacia wood, but most modern scholars accept that each comprised two upright sides connected by horizontal pieces like a ladder. Such sections would be considerably stronger, would keep their shape better, and would allow a view of the beautiful inner layer of curtains from within the sanctuary. On the south and north sides were 20 such frames, with 6 more at the western end. In addition, on the western side were two corner pieces to which all the walls were attached by clasps (vv 23-25). A series of bars, which passed through gold rings attached to each upright frame, provided further security and alignment (vv 26-29). There were five such bars on each of the three sides. The central one on both the south and the north sides extended the entire length; the other four probably extended halfway, so that each frame was effectively secured by three bars. All the wooden sections were sheathed in gold.<\/p>\n<p>Over this framework several layers of coverings formed the top, sides, and back of the tabernacle. The first layer of ten linen curtains was dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and embroidered with cherubim (Ex 26:1-6; 36:8-13). Each measured 42 feet by 6 feet (12.8 meters by 1.8 meters). Pairs joined along their length formed five sets of curtains. The two large curtains were themselves attached with 50 golden clasps that passed through a similar number of loops in each. Probably the curtains were stretched over the structure like a tablecloth.<\/p>\n<p>Eleven curtains or tarpaulins of goat hair, each 45 feet by 6 feet (13.7 meters by 1.8 meters), formed the next layer. These were divided into two sets by joining together five and six curtains respectively, and were linked using a similar method as the under curtain, except that bronze clasps instead of gold were used. The extra length of the goat-hair tarpaulins provided an overlap to protect the under curtain, and the larger tarpaulin overlapped at both the front and the rear of the tabernacle (Ex 26:7-9, 12-13). Two further layers ensured complete weatherproofing, one of ram’s skins dyed red and one of goatskins.<\/p>\n<p>A veil made of the same material as the under curtaining divided the sanctuary and hung under the golden clasps that joined the two curtains, supported by four pillars of acacia wood plated with gold and resting in silver bases. The cherubim on both the veil and the curtains were symbolic guardians of the sanctuary. The positioning of the veil made the Holy of Holies a perfect cube of 15 feet (4.6 meters). The layers of overlapping material and the attention given to the joints emphasizes the darkness of the innermost shrine. God was surrounded by darkness, carefully isolated from any unauthorized sight (Ps 97:2). The Holy Place occupied an area 30 feet by 15 feet (9.1 meters by 4.6 meters), exactly twice the area of the Holy of Holies. A screen made from the same fabric as the main curtain stood between the Holy Place and the outer court and hung from golden hooks on five posts of acacia wood, overlaid with gold and resting on bronze sockets. There is no mention of embroidered seraphim on this section, which formed the tabernacle’s eastern wall.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle, while probably having a somewhat squat appearance suggestive of strength, could be easily dismantled, transported, and reassembled. By the standards of that age, it was a fit dwelling place for God, constructed by the best human skills and the highest quality materials.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheOuterCourtandItsFurnishings\">The Outer Court and Its Furnishings<\/p>\n<p>The court of the tabernacle was a rectangle 150 feet (45.7 meters) long on the north and south sides and 75 feet (22.9 meters) wide on the east and west (Ex 27:9-18; 38:9-19). The tabernacle itself was at the western end. Curtains of fine-twined linen 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high screened the entire tabernacle area. In the eastern section, there was a central entrance, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide. An embroidered curtain of the same height screened this doorway, which was probably recessed to facilitate entrance on either side. Silver rods supported all the curtains. These rods passed through silver hooks attached to the silver-plated posts that rested on bronze bases (38:17).<\/p>\n<p>The altar of burnt offering (Ex 27:1-8; 38:1-7), at the eastern end of the court adjacent to the entrance (40:29), was a reminder that there could be no approach to God except by the place of sacrifice. Seven feet (2.1 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high, it was small in comparison to the gigantic altar in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 4:1). Basically, it was a hollow wooden framework overlaid with bronze, light enough to be carried on bronze-plated poles that passed through bronze rings at each corner. The grating (Ex 27:4-5) was probably inside the altar at the middle, although some scholars believe that it extended around the lower, outer sides of the altar, to provide draft and to allow the sacrificial blood to flow to the base of the altar. The horns, possibly symbolizing the sacrificial victims, could be used to tether the animals about to be sacrificed. In Israel, a person could claim sanctuary by clinging to the horns of the altar (e.g., 1 Kgs 1:50), with the possible symbolism that he was offering himself as a sacrifice to God and so claiming his protection. The lower part of the altar may have been partly filled with earth to absorb the blood (Ex 20:24). All the accessories were bronze: ash buckets, shovels for removing the ashes and filling the base with earth, basins for the blood, carcass hooks, and fire pans (27:3).<\/p>\n<p>No specifications concerning the size of the laver (<span>nlt<\/span> “washbasin”) have survived (Ex 30:17-20; 38:8). It was made from the mirrors of the women who served at the entrance to the court. The laver stood between the altar of sacrifice and the tabernacle. Failure to wash at the laver prior to ministering was punishable by death—a solemn reminder of the need for cleanliness and obedience before undertaking any task for God. The bronze pedestal may have been merely a support for the laver, but possibly it incorporated a lower basin in which the priests could wash their feet.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheConstructionandConsecrationoftheTabernacle\">The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle<\/p>\n<p>The God-given specifications required skills beyond the capabilities of Moses and Aaron. Prominent in the construction were Bezalel and Oholiab (Ex 30:1-11), with a large supporting group of experts, who must have learned their craftsmanship in Egypt. In a remarkable community effort, the Israelites gave so generously that the flow of gifts had to be stopped (35:20-24; 36:4-7). In addition, many gave of their special skills (35:25-29).<\/p>\n<p>When all the items had been completed and placed in position (Ex 40:1-33), every piece except the mercy seat and the cherubim was anointed with special oil (30:22-33; 40:9-11) and symbolically consecrated for its particular function. The climax came when the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle (40:34). He came to be present among his people, and thereafter the cloud by day and fire by night provided reassurance concerning his presence and guidance. Yet there could be no laxity in approaching him, and even Moses was excluded from the Holy of Holies. The tabernacle was erected exactly one year after the deliverance from Egypt and a mere nine months after the Sinai revelation.<\/p>\n<p>Thereafter, when Israel camped, the Levites surrounded the tabernacle on three sides (Nm 1:53), with the families of Moses and Aaron occupying the remaining eastern side (Nm 3:14-38). This prevented any unauthorized intrusion into the sacred area. When the tabernacle was moved, the dismantlement was carefully regulated (4:5-15). The Kohathites were responsible for transporting the more sacred items, using the carrying poles; the Gershonites dealt with all the soft furnishings, the altar of sacrifice, and its accessories; and the Merarites carried the hard furnishings, such as the frames, bars, and bases. Even on the march, the tabernacle remained central, with six tribes preceding and the remaining six following (Nm 2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TABERNACLE Place of worship during the earliest years of the history of Israel. Preview • Introduction • Names for the Tabernacle • Background • The Tabernacle and Its Furniture • The Tabernacle Proper • The Outer Court and Its Furnishings • The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle Introduction The tabernacle was the precursor of the temple during most of the period between the formation of Israel at Sinai and its final establishment in the Promised Land in the early period of the ...","summary_en":"TABERNACLE Place of worship during the earliest years of the history of Israel. Preview • Introduction • Names for the Tabernacle • Background • The Tabernacle and Its Furniture • The Tabernacle Proper • The Outer Court and Its Furnishings • The Construction and Consecration of the Tabernacle Introduction The tabernacle was the precursor of the temple during most of the period between the formation of Israel at Sinai and its final establishment in the Promised Land in the early period of the ...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99750,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127376,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141171,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182628,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237880,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251380,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:15","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:15-23<\/strong> This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","summary_en":"9:15-23 This passage parallels Exod 40:17, 34-38 and provides additional details about God’s use of the pillar of cloud and fire to lead his people (see also Exod 13:21-22). The Lord faithfully and unmistakably guided his people in the wilderness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115961,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":154112,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":171213,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":209721,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":226465,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":264918,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281717,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":30413,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pillar of Fire and Cloud","title_en":"Pillar of Fire and Cloud","content_ro":"<h3>PILLAR OF FIRE AND CLOUD<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequent modes of God’s appearing to humans in the OT; a visual manifestation of the presence of God common in the narratives of the exodus, Sinai covenant, the wilderness wanderings, and the dedication of the temple. The Bible refers to this phenomenon in a variety of ways: the pillar of cloud and of fire (Ex 14:24); pillar of cloud (Ex 33:9-10; Nm 14:14); pillar of fire (Ex 13:21; Nm 14:14); cloud (Ex 40:34-35; Dt 1:33); fire (Dt 1:33; 4:12). Though the Bible itself does not use this designation, the cloud and associated theophanies (God-appearances) are often called the “Shekinah glory” or simply “the Shekinah”—terms that have entered Christian theology from rabbinic literature.<\/p>\n<p>The cloud theophany is associated with a variety of functions; common to all of them is that it is a visible expression of the presence of God. The cloud filled the tabernacle and was there day and night as a witness to the presence of God (Ex 40:34-38). God appeared in the cloud on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:2). God’s acceptance of the temple built as his dwelling is shown when the cloud comes at the dedication (1 Kgs 8:10-11; 2 Chr 5:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The cloud was also a protection for Israel. At its first appearance in the events of the exodus, the cloud positioned itself between the armies of Egypt and Israel, engulfing the Egyptians in darkness on the one side while lighting the way with its fire for Israel on the other (Ex 14:19-20). The psalmist recalled how God “spread out a cloud as a covering, and a fire to give light at night” (Ps 105:39, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar also served as Israel’s guide during the exodus and wandering in the wilderness. “The <span>Lord<\/span> guided them by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. That way they could travel whether it was day or night. And the <span>Lord<\/span> did not remove the pillar of cloud or pillar of fire from their sight” (Ex 13:21-22, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whenever the cloud lifted from above the tent, the Israelites set out; wherever the cloud settled, the Israelites encamped (Nm 9:17). In spite of the sins of the people, the Lord God went ahead of them on their journey, in fire by night and in a cloud by day (Dt 1:33). Subsequent generations would recount how God was their guide by day and night (Neh 9:12, 19; Ps 78:14).<\/p>\n<p>The cloud also had an oracular function (Ps 99:7). Not only did God speak from the cloud at Sinai (Ex 19:9, 16; 34:1-25; Dt 4:11-12; 5:22), he also spoke from there when Israel rebelled (Ex 16:10; Nm 14:10; 16:42-43), when Aaron and Miriam had a quarrel with Moses (Nm 12:1-15), and when the 70 elders were appointed. Only Moses had this ready access to the very words of God. When Moses went into the tabernacle, “the pillar of cloud would come down and hover at the entrance while the <span>Lord<\/span> spoke with Moses” (Ex 33:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). At the death of Moses the Lord appears in the pillar at the tent and speaks of the coming apostasy of the nation (Dt 31:14-29).<\/p>\n<p>Other theophanies having the features of cloud, fire, and light—or some combination—should probably be associated with the pillar of fire and cloud. Ezekiel saw an immense cloud with flashing lightning and surrounded by a brilliant light (Ez 1:4); when he looked inside the cloud, he saw a fire, creatures in the service of God, the throne of God, and the awesome presence of the one who sat upon it and spoke (vv 5-28). Ezekiel also had a vision of the glory of God leaving the temple, and later a vision of its return (chs 10; 43). In Daniel’s vision of the Ancient of Days, he sees one “like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” to receive authority, glory, and power (Dn 7:13, <span>niv<\/span>). The phrase “son of man” becomes Jesus’ favorite self-designation in the Gospels. At the Transfiguration, when he reveals his own glory, the clouds envelop him (Mt 17:5; Mk 9:7; Lk 9:34). At his ascension he is received into the clouds, and angels remind the apostles of his promise to return in the same way (Acts 1:9-11; see Mt 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; Rv 1:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Glory; Shekinah; Theophany.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PILLAR OF FIRE AND CLOUD<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most frequent modes of God’s appearing to humans in the OT; a visual manifestation of the presence of God common in the narratives of the exodus, Sinai covenant, the wilderness wanderings, and the dedication of the temple. The Bible refers to this phenomenon in a variety of ways: the pillar of cloud and of fire (Ex 14:24); pillar of cloud (Ex 33:9-10; Nm 14:14); pillar of fire (Ex 13:21; Nm 14:14); cloud (Ex 40:34-35; Dt 1:33); fire (Dt 1:33; 4:12). Though the Bible itself does not use this designation, the cloud and associated theophanies (God-appearances) are often called the “Shekinah glory” or simply “the Shekinah”—terms that have entered Christian theology from rabbinic literature.<\/p>\n<p>The cloud theophany is associated with a variety of functions; common to all of them is that it is a visible expression of the presence of God. The cloud filled the tabernacle and was there day and night as a witness to the presence of God (Ex 40:34-38). God appeared in the cloud on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:2). God’s acceptance of the temple built as his dwelling is shown when the cloud comes at the dedication (1 Kgs 8:10-11; 2 Chr 5:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>The cloud was also a protection for Israel. At its first appearance in the events of the exodus, the cloud positioned itself between the armies of Egypt and Israel, engulfing the Egyptians in darkness on the one side while lighting the way with its fire for Israel on the other (Ex 14:19-20). The psalmist recalled how God “spread out a cloud as a covering, and a fire to give light at night” (Ps 105:39, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar also served as Israel’s guide during the exodus and wandering in the wilderness. “The <span>Lord<\/span> guided them by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. That way they could travel whether it was day or night. And the <span>Lord<\/span> did not remove the pillar of cloud or pillar of fire from their sight” (Ex 13:21-22, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whenever the cloud lifted from above the tent, the Israelites set out; wherever the cloud settled, the Israelites encamped (Nm 9:17). In spite of the sins of the people, the Lord God went ahead of them on their journey, in fire by night and in a cloud by day (Dt 1:33). Subsequent generations would recount how God was their guide by day and night (Neh 9:12, 19; Ps 78:14).<\/p>\n<p>The cloud also had an oracular function (Ps 99:7). Not only did God speak from the cloud at Sinai (Ex 19:9, 16; 34:1-25; Dt 4:11-12; 5:22), he also spoke from there when Israel rebelled (Ex 16:10; Nm 14:10; 16:42-43), when Aaron and Miriam had a quarrel with Moses (Nm 12:1-15), and when the 70 elders were appointed. Only Moses had this ready access to the very words of God. When Moses went into the tabernacle, “the pillar of cloud would come down and hover at the entrance while the <span>Lord<\/span> spoke with Moses” (Ex 33:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). At the death of Moses the Lord appears in the pillar at the tent and speaks of the coming apostasy of the nation (Dt 31:14-29).<\/p>\n<p>Other theophanies having the features of cloud, fire, and light—or some combination—should probably be associated with the pillar of fire and cloud. Ezekiel saw an immense cloud with flashing lightning and surrounded by a brilliant light (Ez 1:4); when he looked inside the cloud, he saw a fire, creatures in the service of God, the throne of God, and the awesome presence of the one who sat upon it and spoke (vv 5-28). Ezekiel also had a vision of the glory of God leaving the temple, and later a vision of its return (chs 10; 43). In Daniel’s vision of the Ancient of Days, he sees one “like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” to receive authority, glory, and power (Dn 7:13, <span>niv<\/span>). The phrase “son of man” becomes Jesus’ favorite self-designation in the Gospels. At the Transfiguration, when he reveals his own glory, the clouds envelop him (Mt 17:5; Mk 9:7; Lk 9:34). At his ascension he is received into the clouds, and angels remind the apostles of his promise to return in the same way (Acts 1:9-11; see Mt 24:30; Mk 13:26; Lk 21:27; Rv 1:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Glory; Shekinah; Theophany.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PILLAR OF FIRE AND CLOUD One of the most frequent modes of God’s appearing to humans in the OT; a visual manifestation of the presence of God common in the narratives of the exodus, Sinai covenant, the wilderness wanderings, and the dedication of the temple. The Bible refers to this phenomenon in a variety of ways: the pillar of cloud and of fire (Ex 14:24); pillar of cloud (Ex 33:9-10; Nm 14:14); pillar of fire (Ex 13:21; Nm 14:14); cloud (Ex 40:34-35; Dt 1:33); fire (Dt 1:33; 4:12). Though ...","summary_en":"PILLAR OF FIRE AND CLOUD One of the most frequent modes of God’s appearing to humans in the OT; a visual manifestation of the presence of God common in the narratives of the exodus, Sinai covenant, the wilderness wanderings, and the dedication of the temple. The Bible refers to this phenomenon in a variety of ways: the pillar of cloud and of fire (Ex 14:24); pillar of cloud (Ex 33:9-10; Nm 14:14); pillar of fire (Ex 13:21; Nm 14:14); cloud (Ex 40:34-35; Dt 1:33); fire (Dt 1:33; 4:12). Though ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115955,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":154100,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":171207,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":209709,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":226459,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":264906,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281711,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":99751,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":127377,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":141173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":182629,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":196066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":237881,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":251382,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Numeri 9:19","title_en":"Study Note: Numeri 9:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>9:19-23<\/strong> The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.<\/p>","summary_ro":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","summary_en":"9:19-23 The fiery cloud, witnessed even by Israel’s enemies (14:14), was a clear symbol of God’s glorious presence and the means by which he directed their movement.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":115956,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":154102,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":171208,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":209711,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":226460,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":264908,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":281712,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Norul și focul","title_en":"The Cloud and Fire","content_ro":"<h3>Norul și focul<\/h3>\n<p>Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „<span>Domnul<\/span> mergea înaintea lor” (Exod 13:21). Când stâlpul se așeza peste Cortul întâlnirii și peste tabăra lui Israel, el reprezenta prezența și protecția Domnului. Norul și focul ofereau și călăuzire divină, indicând când trebuiau israeliții să pornească (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). Când stâlpul rămânea pe loc, Israel rămânea acolo unde era. Când se ridica și pornea mai departe, israeliții își strângeau tabăra și îl urmau. Ei campau în locuri diferite pentru perioade de timp variate, uneori pentru scurtă vreme, alteori pentru mai mult timp. Astfel, Israel „tăbăra sau pornea la porunca <span>Domnului<\/span>” (Num 9:23). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era asemenea unui steag divin fluturând deasupra semințiilor aflate în marș (comp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>Stâlpul apărea în mod obișnuit ca nor ziua și ca stâlp de foc noaptea (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). În Biblie, atât focul, cât și norii indică adesea prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu (de ex., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Mat 17:5; 24:30; Fapte 1:9; comp. Ps 18:8-13). Imaginea norului și a focului arăta că prezența și slava lui Dumnezeu se mișcau împreună cu Israel prin pustie. Această manifestare specială a lui Dumnezeu (o <em>teofanie<\/em>) a rămas cu ei „în toate călătoriile lor” cât timp au fost în pustie (Exod 40:38; vezi și Exod 13:22). Uneori, „norul acoperea Cortul întâlnirii, și slava <span>Domnului<\/span> umplea Cortul”, astfel încât „Moise nu mai putea intra în Cortul întâlnirii” (Exod 40:34-35). În alte ocazii, norul cobora și rămânea lângă intrarea Cortului întâlnirii, indicând că Domnul vorbea cu Moise „față în față” (Exod 33:7-11; comp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). Stâlpul de nor și de foc era o amintire constantă și încurajatoare a prezenței Domnului. Nu ni se oferă o descriere specifică a focului și a norului, în afară de faptul că aveau forma unui stâlp; oricum, era un simbol puternic al grijii speciale a lui Dumnezeu față de Israel (vezi Neem 9:19-21; comp. Ps 46:1; 139; Ioan 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Pasaje pentru studiu suplimentar<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Regi 8:11; 2 Cron 5:14; Neem 9:19-21; Ps 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezec 1:4-5; 10:3; Mat 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luca 9:34-35; Fapte 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Tes 4:17; Apoc 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Cloud and Fire<\/h3>\n<p>When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the <span>Lord<\/span> went ahead of them” (Exod 13:21). When the pillar settled over the Tabernacle and the camp of Israel, it represented the Lord’s presence and protection. The cloud and fire also provided divine guidance by indicating when the Israelites should move (Exod 40:36-38; Num 9:17-23). When the pillar was stationary, Israel stayed where they were. When it lifted and moved on, the Israelites broke camp and followed. They camped in different places for varying amounts of time, sometimes briefly and sometimes for a longer period. Israel thus “camped or traveled at the <span>Lord<\/span>’s command” (Num 9:23). The pillar of cloud and fire was like a divine banner flying over the tribes on the march (cp. 10:14, 18, 22, 25).<\/p>\n<p>The pillar regularly appeared as a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (9:15-16; Exod 13:21). In the Bible, both fire and clouds often indicate the presence and glory of God (e.g., Exod 19:16-18; 24:15-18; Matt 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; cp. Ps 18:8-13). The cloud and fire imagery indicated that God’s presence and glory moved with Israel through the wilderness. This special manifestation of God (a <em>theophany<\/em>) stayed with them “throughout all their journeys” while they were in the wilderness (Exod 40:38; see also Exod 13:22). Sometimes, “the cloud covered the Tabernacle, and the glory of the <span>Lord<\/span> filled the Tabernacle,” so that “Moses could no longer enter the Tabernacle” (Exod 40:34-35). On other occasions, the cloud descended and hovered near the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, indicating that the Lord was speaking with Moses “face to face” (Exod 33:7-11; cp. Num 11:25; 12:5; Deut 31:15). The pillar of cloud and fire was a constant, reassuring reminder of the Lord’s presence. We are not given any specific description of the fire and the cloud other than that it was shaped like a pillar; regardless, it was a powerful symbol of God’s special care for Israel (see Neh 9:19-21; cp. Pss 46:1; 139; John 1:14; Rom 8:31-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 13:20-22; 14:19-24; 16:10; 19:16-18; 24:15-18; 33:7-11; 40:34-38; Lev 16:2; Num 9:15-23; 10:11-12, 34; 11:25; 12:5, 10; 14:14; 16:42; Deut 31:15; 1 Kgs 8:11; 2 Chr 5:14; Neh 9:19-21; Pss 78:14; 99:7; 104:3; Ezek 1:4-5; 10:3; Matt 17:5; 24:30; 26:64; Luke 9:34-35; Acts 1:9; 1 Cor 10:2; 1 Thes 4:17; Rev 1:7; 14:14-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Norul și focul Când Israel era în pustie, Dumnezeu a condus națiunea printr-un stâlp de nor și de foc. Stâlpul s-a alăturat israeliților imediat după primul Paște, îndată după ce Israel a ieșit din Egipt (Exod 13:20-22). Stâlpul îndeplinea mai multe funcții. Când egiptenii i-au urmărit pe israeliți, norul s-a mutat în spatele poporului Israel și a împiedicat înaintarea egiptenilor (Exod 14:19-20). În restul călătoriilor lui Israel, el era un semn vizibil că „Domnul mergea înaintea lor” (Exod ...","summary_en":"The Cloud and Fire When Israel was in the wilderness, God led the nation with a pillar of cloud and fire. The pillar joined the Israelites right after the first Passover, immediately after Israel left Egypt (Exod 13:20-22). The pillar served a variety of functions. When the Egyptians pursued the Israelites, the cloud moved behind the people of Israel and prevented an Egyptian advance (Exod 14:19-20). Through the rest of Israel’s travels, it was a visible indication that “the Lord went ahead o...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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