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Psalmi 126

¹ (O cântare a treptelor.) Când a adus Domnul înapoi pe prinşii de război ai Sionului, parcă visam.

² Atunci gura ne era plină de strigăte de bucurie, şi limba de cântări de veselie. Atunci se spunea printre neamuri: ,,Domnul a făcut mari lucruri pentru ei!``

³ Da, Domnul a făcut mari lucruri pentru noi, şi deaceea sântem plini de bucurie.

⁴ Doamne, adu înapoi pe prinşii noştri de război, ca pe nişte râuri în partea de miază zi!

⁵ Cei ce samănă cu lăcrămi, vor secera cu cântări de veselie.

⁶ Cel ce umblă plângând, când aruncă sămânţa, se întoarce cu veselie, când îşi strânge snopii.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":9856,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dreams","title_en":"Dreams","content_ro":"<h3>DREAMS<\/h3>\nThoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored.<\/p>\nAncient Understanding<\/p>\nFrom the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods.<\/p>\nAncient recorded dreams focused on three main areas: religion, politics, and personal destiny. Religious dreams called for piety and devotion to the gods. Political dreams supposedly forecast the outcome of battles and the future destiny of nations. Personal dreams guided family decisions and presaged serious crises.<\/p>\nSometimes the god took the initiative and forewarned the person about something unexpected. Sometimes the ruler or general would go to a pagan temple or holy place and sleep there, hoping to bring on a dream that would help him cope with some serious problem. In some dreams the message was clear; more often it had to be discovered by individuals who specialized in dream interpretation. Records were kept concerning specific dreams and the subsequent events.<\/p>\nOld Testament Use<\/p>\nDreams played an important part in the lives of God’s people. Of the nearly 120 references to dreams in the OT, 52 come in Genesis during the early patriarchal period and 29 in the book of Daniel. In reality, however, only 14 specific dreams are recorded in the OT. Most of them are in Genesis and reflect God’s direct revelation to the patriarchs. Even Daniel tells about only two of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams—the large, manlike image and the gigantic tree chopped down—and his own dream about the four beasts and the Ancient of Days.<\/p>\nThe OT understanding of dreams had several significant features. Like the rest of the ancient world, people of God believed that God communicated in dreams. Yet there is in the OT accounts a reserve that is lacking in the perverse and obscene scenes often described in pagan dream records. Another distinction is that God is the initiator; he gives the revelatory dreams when, where, and to whom he pleases—a truth painfully learned by Saul (1 Sm 28:6, 15). More significantly, the secular approach to interpretation was specifically rejected. Understanding of dream symbols came not by research in dream books or by natural human ability. When Joseph interpreted the dreams of his two Egyptian fellow prisoners and later of the pharaoh himself, he insisted on giving full credit to God (Gn 40:8; 41:7, 25, 28, 39). Similarly, Daniel informed Nebuchadnezzar that the God in heaven who reveals secrets would make known the king’s dream and its meaning, in which task professional dream interpreters had failed (Dn 2:27-28).<\/p>\nUnlike their neighbors, the OT saints knew that a dream was a “vision of the night” (Jb 33:15), and figuratively represented the spiritual realm (Jb 20:8; Pss 73:20; 126:1; Is 29:7-8).<\/p>\nGod used dreams in OT days to protect his servants (Gn 20), to reveal himself to people in a special way (28:12), to provide guidance in specific circumstances (31:10-13), and to forewarn about personal future events (37:5-20). Dreams were also used to predict the history of nations (chs 40–41) and to foretell the four great successive world empires that would be replaced by God’s eternal kingdom (Dn 4:19-27).<\/p>\nDuring the approximately 1,000 years between Joseph and Daniel, only two dreams are recorded. One assured Gideon that God would defeat the Midianites (Jgs 7:13-15); the other concerns how Solomon became so wise after his humble, unselfish request for “an understanding heart” (1 Kgs 3:9, 15) thoroughly pleased God.<\/p>\nIn the final OT dreams, God gave Nebuchadnezzar an overview of future world history (Dn 2:31-45) and a prediction of the king’s temporary insanity (4:19-27). Daniel’s dream of the four beasts was similar to the king’s first dreams, but with added details concerning future international relations (7:13-14).<\/p>\nDreams were seen as one means by which God would speak to prophets (Nm 12:6). But how could the people of God distinguish a true prophet from an imposter? God gave two tests: the ability to predict the immediate future (Dt 18:22) and the consistency of the message with previously revealed truth (13:1-4). False prophets were put to death (v 5). False prophecy was a serious problem in the days of Jeremiah (Jer 23:25-32) and Zechariah (Zec 10:2). Despite repeated warnings by Jeremiah (Jer 23:32; 27:9-10; 29:8-9), the people preferred to listen to the false prophets with their empty messages of hope. Dreams were also a part of Israel’s prophetic hope (Jl 2:28).<\/p>\nNew Testament Use<\/p>\nThe few specific dreams in the NT all come from Matthew, five of these in the first two chapters. They emphasize the divine care and protection of the baby Jesus. First, there was God’s provision that Jesus would grow up in a home with a father and mother and thus avoid the cruelty and shame of being unjustly called an illegitimate child (Mt 1:19-23). Then the wise men were instructed in a dream not to tell Herod where Jesus was living (2:12). Jesus was further protected from jealous King Herod by the dream that told Joseph to flee to Egypt with Mary and the child (v 13). On Herod’s death, Joseph was divinely advised in a dream to return home from Egypt (v 20). Finally, God warned Joseph to avoid Judea, where Herod’s evil son Archelaus reigned, and to settle in Galilee instead (v 22).<\/p>\nThe only other specific dream mentioned in the NT prompted Pilate’s wife to warn her husband, “Don’t have anything to do with that innocent man” (Mt 27:19, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Prophecy; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DREAMS<\/h3>\nThoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored.<\/p>\nAncient Understanding<\/p>\nFrom the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods.<\/p>\nAncient recorded dreams focused on three main areas: religion, politics, and personal destiny. Religious dreams called for piety and devotion to the gods. Political dreams supposedly forecast the outcome of battles and the future destiny of nations. Personal dreams guided family decisions and presaged serious crises.<\/p>\nSometimes the god took the initiative and forewarned the person about something unexpected. Sometimes the ruler or general would go to a pagan temple or holy place and sleep there, hoping to bring on a dream that would help him cope with some serious problem. In some dreams the message was clear; more often it had to be discovered by individuals who specialized in dream interpretation. Records were kept concerning specific dreams and the subsequent events.<\/p>\nOld Testament Use<\/p>\nDreams played an important part in the lives of God’s people. Of the nearly 120 references to dreams in the OT, 52 come in Genesis during the early patriarchal period and 29 in the book of Daniel. In reality, however, only 14 specific dreams are recorded in the OT. Most of them are in Genesis and reflect God’s direct revelation to the patriarchs. Even Daniel tells about only two of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams—the large, manlike image and the gigantic tree chopped down—and his own dream about the four beasts and the Ancient of Days.<\/p>\nThe OT understanding of dreams had several significant features. Like the rest of the ancient world, people of God believed that God communicated in dreams. Yet there is in the OT accounts a reserve that is lacking in the perverse and obscene scenes often described in pagan dream records. Another distinction is that God is the initiator; he gives the revelatory dreams when, where, and to whom he pleases—a truth painfully learned by Saul (1 Sm 28:6, 15). More significantly, the secular approach to interpretation was specifically rejected. Understanding of dream symbols came not by research in dream books or by natural human ability. When Joseph interpreted the dreams of his two Egyptian fellow prisoners and later of the pharaoh himself, he insisted on giving full credit to God (Gn 40:8; 41:7, 25, 28, 39). Similarly, Daniel informed Nebuchadnezzar that the God in heaven who reveals secrets would make known the king’s dream and its meaning, in which task professional dream interpreters had failed (Dn 2:27-28).<\/p>\nUnlike their neighbors, the OT saints knew that a dream was a “vision of the night” (Jb 33:15), and figuratively represented the spiritual realm (Jb 20:8; Pss 73:20; 126:1; Is 29:7-8).<\/p>\nGod used dreams in OT days to protect his servants (Gn 20), to reveal himself to people in a special way (28:12), to provide guidance in specific circumstances (31:10-13), and to forewarn about personal future events (37:5-20). Dreams were also used to predict the history of nations (chs 40–41) and to foretell the four great successive world empires that would be replaced by God’s eternal kingdom (Dn 4:19-27).<\/p>\nDuring the approximately 1,000 years between Joseph and Daniel, only two dreams are recorded. One assured Gideon that God would defeat the Midianites (Jgs 7:13-15); the other concerns how Solomon became so wise after his humble, unselfish request for “an understanding heart” (1 Kgs 3:9, 15) thoroughly pleased God.<\/p>\nIn the final OT dreams, God gave Nebuchadnezzar an overview of future world history (Dn 2:31-45) and a prediction of the king’s temporary insanity (4:19-27). Daniel’s dream of the four beasts was similar to the king’s first dreams, but with added details concerning future international relations (7:13-14).<\/p>\nDreams were seen as one means by which God would speak to prophets (Nm 12:6). But how could the people of God distinguish a true prophet from an imposter? God gave two tests: the ability to predict the immediate future (Dt 18:22) and the consistency of the message with previously revealed truth (13:1-4). False prophets were put to death (v 5). False prophecy was a serious problem in the days of Jeremiah (Jer 23:25-32) and Zechariah (Zec 10:2). Despite repeated warnings by Jeremiah (Jer 23:32; 27:9-10; 29:8-9), the people preferred to listen to the false prophets with their empty messages of hope. Dreams were also a part of Israel’s prophetic hope (Jl 2:28).<\/p>\nNew Testament Use<\/p>\nThe few specific dreams in the NT all come from Matthew, five of these in the first two chapters. They emphasize the divine care and protection of the baby Jesus. First, there was God’s provision that Jesus would grow up in a home with a father and mother and thus avoid the cruelty and shame of being unjustly called an illegitimate child (Mt 1:19-23). Then the wise men were instructed in a dream not to tell Herod where Jesus was living (2:12). Jesus was further protected from jealous King Herod by the dream that told Joseph to flee to Egypt with Mary and the child (v 13). On Herod’s death, Joseph was divinely advised in a dream to return home from Egypt (v 20). Finally, God warned Joseph to avoid Judea, where Herod’s evil son Archelaus reigned, and to settle in Galilee instead (v 22).<\/p>\nThe only other specific dream mentioned in the NT prompted Pilate’s wife to warn her husband, “Don’t have anything to do with that innocent man” (Mt 27:19, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Prophecy; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DREAMS Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored. Ancient Understanding From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods. Ancient recorded dreams focused on th...","summary_en":"DREAMS Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored. Ancient Understanding From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods. Ancient recorded dreams focused on th...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31971,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50142,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","summary_en":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50143,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","content_en":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","summary_en":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77768,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","summary_en":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77769,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","content_en":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","summary_en":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105394,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","summary_en":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105395,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","content_en":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","summary_en":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133020,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 126<\/strong> This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","summary_en":"Ps 126 This hymn celebrates Israel’s return from exile (126:1-3). The psalmist prays for full restoration (126:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133021,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:1","content_ro":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","content_en":"126:1-3<\/strong> The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter<\/em> and showed the Lord’s character to the nations<\/em> (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","summary_en":"126:1-3 The Lord brought about Israel’s restoration from exile, just as he had brought Israel out of Egypt (114:1). The restoration transformed the weeping of the Lord’s people into laughter and showed the Lord’s character to the nations (9:11; 64:9; Isa 12:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62900,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63134,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90526,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90760,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118152,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118386,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145778,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146012,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\nIsrael’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\nThe Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\nThese questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\nThe definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":22628,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laughter","title_en":"Laughter","content_ro":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\nExpression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\nLaughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\nLaughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\nExpression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\nLaughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\nLaughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","summary_en":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32040,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":50144,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:4","content_ro":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","content_en":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","summary_en":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77770,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:4","content_ro":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","content_en":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","summary_en":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105396,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:4","content_ro":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","content_en":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","summary_en":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133022,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 126:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 126:4","content_ro":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","content_en":"126:4-6<\/strong> The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert:<\/em> The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis<\/em>), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes<\/em>,<\/em> a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isaiah (see “The Promise of a Second Exodus” Theme Note). • The harvest<\/em> represents God’s full restoration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","summary_en":"126:4-6 The prophets had spoken of the restoration as a time when the wilderness would change into the Garden of Eden (Isa 51:3; Ezek 47); the reality fell far short of paradise. Here the restoration community prays for full redemption (see Hag 2:19). • as streams renew the desert: The seasonal rains filled the dry river beds (wadis), and the land turned green again. The prayer looks for a similar transformation of Israel’s fortunes, a fulfillment of the imagery of the “Second Exodus” in Isai...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":771,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Agriculture*","title_en":"Agriculture*","content_ro":"<h3>AGRICULTURE*<\/h3>\nDuring Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Herding<\/p>\n• Field Cropping<\/p>\n• Fruit Raising<\/p>\n• Cultivating<\/p>\n• Harvesting<\/p>\nHerding<\/p>\nRaising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and clothing while requiring a minimum of techniques and equipment.<\/p>\nThe patriarchs were mainly herdsmen, pasturing their sheep and cattle on common land and generally neglecting to till the soil. Jacob and his sons entered Egypt as shepherds (Gn 47:3). Later this pastoral life is still found in the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh in Transjordan (Nm 32:1) and in certain of the tribes dwelling in the western Palestinian hills (1 Sm 25:2). Herding continued to be a part of Hebrew agriculture even in postnomadic days, partly because the animals utilized less productive lands and partly because of the people’s traditions. Important among these traditions were the sacrifices performed in the temple.<\/p>\n\nField Cropping<\/p>\nMost authorities agree that the Israelites learned field agriculture from the Canaanites, since contact with these people was contemporaneous with the settling of the Promised Land. The raising of grain is known to have existed before that time. Cain was a tiller of the soil (Gn 4:2), although it is uncertain what he raised. Archaeologists date the existence of grain farming to around 6800 BC<\/span> in the Near East. Isaac sowed in Gerar (Gn 26:12), and Joseph dreamed of sheaves of grain (Gn 37:6-7). Joseph probably learned more about farming grain from the Egyptians, who raised it on the fertile soils of the Nile floodplain.<\/p>\nYet it was from contact with the Canaanites that Israelites began to raise grain. The productivity of Canaan was reported by Joshua and Caleb at Kadesh-barnea (Nm 13:26), and the Canaanites, who were later conquered, were no doubt made to initiate their conquerors into agricultural practices. Probably such a relationship contributed to the continual Israelite lapses into idolatry (Jgs 9:27). How rapidly they made the transition from the purely nomadic life is not clear. Some tribes never did shed the nomadic way, but cultivation of the soil seems to have been common by the time of the kings (2 Sm 14:30).<\/p>\nOf the cereals raised, wheat was one of the most important. Solomon sent great amounts of it, along with barley and oil, to Hiram (2 Chr 2:10), and it continued to be a chief item of export (Ez 27:17). Barley was second in importance. In early times it was the chief ingredient of bread (Jgs 7:13); later it became an important food for the poorer classes (Jn 6:9, 13). It was also fed to cattle.<\/p>\nOther field crops were beans and lentils (2 Sm 17:28), which were ground into meal and sometimes used for bread (Ez 4:9). Leeks, garlic, and onions were raised for seasoning, and cumin, coriander, dill, mint, rue, and mustard for spices. Flax was important (Jos 2:6). Some cotton was grown (Is 19:9). The fiber supply was supplemented with wool. By Roman times cotton had become much more important than flax.<\/p>\nFruit Raising<\/p>\nWhen the Israelites became well settled, orchards and vineyards were planted and came to be symbols of prosperity. Vineyards supplied wine to drink. Olive orchards provided oil for cooking, cosmetics, and medicine. Figs and pomegranates were also grown. For all of these crops more skill and equipment became necessary.<\/p>\nCultivating<\/p>\nThroughout biblical times, much of the labor for agriculture came from the farmer himself. To plant for the first time, it was necessary to clear the land of forest (Jos 17:18), stones (Is 5:2), weeds, and thorns. Sometimes the thin soil on hillsides was terraced, and sometimes irrigation was employed. Such tasks limited the size of farms so that only the wealthy, such as Job and Boaz, had large holdings.<\/p>\nTo till the land, farmers used oxen or cows to pull very primitive plows (Jgs 14:18; Am 6:12). Occasionally an ass was used (Dt 22:10). Clods were broken with a hoe or the driver’s goad. The surface was evened by drawing a simple harrow, perhaps only a thornbush, or a stoneboat over it. Seed was sown by hand, sometimes carefully in the furrow, and covered lightly with the harrow or stoneboat. Weeds were controlled by the plow, harrow, or hoe.<\/p>\n\nImplements did not change much during Bible times. The plow consisted of an upright J-shaped piece of hardwood so fixed to be drawn by oxen at one end and held by the driver at the other. Such a primitive device could break up only four to five inches (10 to 13 centimeters) of soil. After the exodus, iron became available for the tip of the plow (1 Sm 13:20), but this served mainly to cut down wear on the point.<\/p>\nThe use of fertilizer was very limited on Palestinian farms. Of course, ceremonial law requiring that the soil lie fallow every seventh year helped to replenish water and nutrients, or at least delay their depletion. Manuring of fields was not common because dung was used for fuel. However, there is some mention of this practice in Scripture (Lk 13:8, where dung is placed around trees). There is mention in the Mishnah of the use of wood ashes, leaves, blood of slaughtered animals, and oil scum for fertilizer.<\/p>\nHarvesting<\/p>\nSeeding was done at the beginning of the rainy season and harvesting was begun at the end. Harvesting lasted at least seven weeks. Some crops were pulled up by the roots (pulse), others were dug with a hoe (some grain), but most were cut with a sickle. Iron sickles have been found in archaeological excavations, some with cutting edges set with flakes of flint. The cut grain was tied in sheaves (Ps 126:6) and cast into heaps to be transported to the threshing floor. Barley was harvested first and wheat last.<\/p>\nSmall quantities of grain, dill, cumin, and other small crops were beaten out with a flail (Jgs 6:11; Ru 2:17), but most grain was threshed on a floor placed on high ground so that the wind would carry off the chaff. The usual method was to scatter the loosened bundles of straw on the floor and to drive oxen over them to dislodge the grains. Sometimes heavy implements were drawn over the straw (Is 28:27; 41:15). These were weighted by stones and ridden by the driver. The resulting bits of straw, or chaff, were separated from the grain by a tedious winnowing process that involved throwing the material in the air with a fork or shovel (Is 30:24; Jer 15:7). The lighter straw would be blown to the edge of the floor, and the grain would collect at the feet of the worker. The chaff was burned or used as fodder. Grain was sifted (Am 9:9), shoveled into a heap, and later stored in covered pits in the field (Jer 41:8). Sometimes storehouses or granaries were used (Dt 28:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plants; Harvest; Palestine; Vines, Vineyard; Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGRICULTURE*<\/h3>\nDuring Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Herding<\/p>\n• Field Cropping<\/p>\n• Fruit Raising<\/p>\n• Cultivating<\/p>\n• Harvesting<\/p>\nHerding<\/p>\nRaising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and clothing while requiring a minimum of techniques and equipment.<\/p>\nThe patriarchs were mainly herdsmen, pasturing their sheep and cattle on common land and generally neglecting to till the soil. Jacob and his sons entered Egypt as shepherds (Gn 47:3). Later this pastoral life is still found in the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh in Transjordan (Nm 32:1) and in certain of the tribes dwelling in the western Palestinian hills (1 Sm 25:2). Herding continued to be a part of Hebrew agriculture even in postnomadic days, partly because the animals utilized less productive lands and partly because of the people’s traditions. Important among these traditions were the sacrifices performed in the temple.<\/p>\n\nField Cropping<\/p>\nMost authorities agree that the Israelites learned field agriculture from the Canaanites, since contact with these people was contemporaneous with the settling of the Promised Land. The raising of grain is known to have existed before that time. Cain was a tiller of the soil (Gn 4:2), although it is uncertain what he raised. Archaeologists date the existence of grain farming to around 6800 BC<\/span> in the Near East. Isaac sowed in Gerar (Gn 26:12), and Joseph dreamed of sheaves of grain (Gn 37:6-7). Joseph probably learned more about farming grain from the Egyptians, who raised it on the fertile soils of the Nile floodplain.<\/p>\nYet it was from contact with the Canaanites that Israelites began to raise grain. The productivity of Canaan was reported by Joshua and Caleb at Kadesh-barnea (Nm 13:26), and the Canaanites, who were later conquered, were no doubt made to initiate their conquerors into agricultural practices. Probably such a relationship contributed to the continual Israelite lapses into idolatry (Jgs 9:27). How rapidly they made the transition from the purely nomadic life is not clear. Some tribes never did shed the nomadic way, but cultivation of the soil seems to have been common by the time of the kings (2 Sm 14:30).<\/p>\nOf the cereals raised, wheat was one of the most important. Solomon sent great amounts of it, along with barley and oil, to Hiram (2 Chr 2:10), and it continued to be a chief item of export (Ez 27:17). Barley was second in importance. In early times it was the chief ingredient of bread (Jgs 7:13); later it became an important food for the poorer classes (Jn 6:9, 13). It was also fed to cattle.<\/p>\nOther field crops were beans and lentils (2 Sm 17:28), which were ground into meal and sometimes used for bread (Ez 4:9). Leeks, garlic, and onions were raised for seasoning, and cumin, coriander, dill, mint, rue, and mustard for spices. Flax was important (Jos 2:6). Some cotton was grown (Is 19:9). The fiber supply was supplemented with wool. By Roman times cotton had become much more important than flax.<\/p>\nFruit Raising<\/p>\nWhen the Israelites became well settled, orchards and vineyards were planted and came to be symbols of prosperity. Vineyards supplied wine to drink. Olive orchards provided oil for cooking, cosmetics, and medicine. Figs and pomegranates were also grown. For all of these crops more skill and equipment became necessary.<\/p>\nCultivating<\/p>\nThroughout biblical times, much of the labor for agriculture came from the farmer himself. To plant for the first time, it was necessary to clear the land of forest (Jos 17:18), stones (Is 5:2), weeds, and thorns. Sometimes the thin soil on hillsides was terraced, and sometimes irrigation was employed. Such tasks limited the size of farms so that only the wealthy, such as Job and Boaz, had large holdings.<\/p>\nTo till the land, farmers used oxen or cows to pull very primitive plows (Jgs 14:18; Am 6:12). Occasionally an ass was used (Dt 22:10). Clods were broken with a hoe or the driver’s goad. The surface was evened by drawing a simple harrow, perhaps only a thornbush, or a stoneboat over it. Seed was sown by hand, sometimes carefully in the furrow, and covered lightly with the harrow or stoneboat. Weeds were controlled by the plow, harrow, or hoe.<\/p>\n\nImplements did not change much during Bible times. The plow consisted of an upright J-shaped piece of hardwood so fixed to be drawn by oxen at one end and held by the driver at the other. Such a primitive device could break up only four to five inches (10 to 13 centimeters) of soil. After the exodus, iron became available for the tip of the plow (1 Sm 13:20), but this served mainly to cut down wear on the point.<\/p>\nThe use of fertilizer was very limited on Palestinian farms. Of course, ceremonial law requiring that the soil lie fallow every seventh year helped to replenish water and nutrients, or at least delay their depletion. Manuring of fields was not common because dung was used for fuel. However, there is some mention of this practice in Scripture (Lk 13:8, where dung is placed around trees). There is mention in the Mishnah of the use of wood ashes, leaves, blood of slaughtered animals, and oil scum for fertilizer.<\/p>\nHarvesting<\/p>\nSeeding was done at the beginning of the rainy season and harvesting was begun at the end. Harvesting lasted at least seven weeks. Some crops were pulled up by the roots (pulse), others were dug with a hoe (some grain), but most were cut with a sickle. Iron sickles have been found in archaeological excavations, some with cutting edges set with flakes of flint. The cut grain was tied in sheaves (Ps 126:6) and cast into heaps to be transported to the threshing floor. Barley was harvested first and wheat last.<\/p>\nSmall quantities of grain, dill, cumin, and other small crops were beaten out with a flail (Jgs 6:11; Ru 2:17), but most grain was threshed on a floor placed on high ground so that the wind would carry off the chaff. The usual method was to scatter the loosened bundles of straw on the floor and to drive oxen over them to dislodge the grains. Sometimes heavy implements were drawn over the straw (Is 28:27; 41:15). These were weighted by stones and ridden by the driver. The resulting bits of straw, or chaff, were separated from the grain by a tedious winnowing process that involved throwing the material in the air with a fork or shovel (Is 30:24; Jer 15:7). The lighter straw would be blown to the edge of the floor, and the grain would collect at the feet of the worker. The chaff was burned or used as fodder. Grain was sifted (Am 9:9), shoveled into a heap, and later stored in covered pits in the field (Jer 41:8). Sometimes storehouses or granaries were used (Dt 28:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plants; Harvest; Palestine; Vines, Vineyard; Food and Food Preparation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGRICULTURE* During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people. Preview • Herding • Field Cropping • Fruit Raising • Cultivating • Harvesting Herding Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and...","summary_en":"AGRICULTURE* During Bible times agriculture took the same three main forms found in Palestine today. Emphasis on each of these has depended upon the social and technological status of the people. Preview • Herding • Field Cropping • Fruit Raising • Cultivating • Harvesting Herding Raising livestock is one of the first occupations mentioned in the Scriptures. Abel (Gn 4:2) and Jabal (Gn 4:20) were keepers of sheep or had cattle. This occupation fit the seminomadic life, providing both food and...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

Psalmi 126

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