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Psalmi 142

¹ (O cântare a lui David. O rugăciune făcută când era în peşteră.) Cu glasul meu strig către Domnul, cu glasul meu mă rog către Domnul.

² Îmi vărs necazul înaintea Lui, şi-mi povestesc strâmtorarea înaintea Lui.

³ Când îmi este mâhnit duhul în mine, Tu îmi cunoşti cărarea. Pe drumul pe care umblu, mi-au întins o cursă.

⁴ Aruncă-Ţi ochii la dreapta, şi priveşte! Nimeni nu mă mai cunoaşte, orice scăpare este pierdută pentru mine, nimănui nu-i pasă de sufletul meu.

⁵ Doamne, către Tine strig, şi zic: ,,Tu eşti scăparea mea, partea mea de moştenire pe pământul celor vii.``

⁶ Ia aminte la strigătele mele, căci sânt nenorocit de tot. Izbăveşte-mă de cei ce mă prigonesc, căci sânt mai tari decât mine.

⁷ Scoate-mi sufletul din temniţă, ca să laud Numele Tău! Cei neprihăniţi vor veni să mă înconjoare, când îmi vei face bine.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":668,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adullamite Adullam","title_en":"Adullamite Adullam","content_ro":"<h3>ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE<\/h3>\nOld Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20).<\/p>\nAdullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:15) and one of 15 cities later fortified by King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:7). After the exiles’ return from captivity in Babylon, Adullam was again resettled by Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:30).<\/p>\nA cave near Adullam figured in several events in David’s life. It was a refuge when he fled from King Saul (1 Sm 22:1) and a stronghold in his war against the Philistines (2 Sm 23:13-17; 1 Chr 11:15-19). The Hebrew superscriptions to Psalms 57 and 142 indicate that David wrote them at the time of his experiences in the cave. Adullam is identified as modern Tell esh-Sheikh Madhkur.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE<\/h3>\nOld Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20).<\/p>\nAdullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jos 12:15) and one of 15 cities later fortified by King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:7). After the exiles’ return from captivity in Babylon, Adullam was again resettled by Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:30).<\/p>\nA cave near Adullam figured in several events in David’s life. It was a refuge when he fled from King Saul (1 Sm 22:1) and a stronghold in his war against the Philistines (2 Sm 23:13-17; 1 Chr 11:15-19). The Hebrew superscriptions to Psalms 57 and 142 indicate that David wrote them at the time of his experiences in the cave. Adullam is identified as modern Tell esh-Sheikh Madhkur.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20). Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jo...","summary_en":"ADULLAM, ADULLAMITE Old Canaanite city between Lachish and Hebron, as well as a cave region nearby. The first biblical mention of the city is in the word “Adullamite” (someone from Adullam), used of Hirah, a friend of Judah. After acting as a ringleader in selling his brother Joseph into slavery, Judah left home and lived in Adullam with Hirah (Gn 38:1, 12, 20). Adullam was in the lowlands of Judah’s tribal territory (Jos 15:35). It was one of 31 Canaanite royal cities conquered by Joshua (Jo...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26592,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50234,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","summary_en":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50235,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","summary_en":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50236,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","summary_en":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77860,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","summary_en":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77861,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","summary_en":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77862,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","summary_en":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105486,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","summary_en":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105487,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","summary_en":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105488,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","summary_en":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133112,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 142<\/strong> The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","summary_en":"Ps 142 The psalmist faces severe persecution, so he cries to the Lord, and the Lord will rescue him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133113,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-7<\/strong> regarding his experience in the cave:<\/em> Cp. Ps 57:title<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","summary_en":"142:1-7 regarding his experience in the cave: Cp. Ps 57:title.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133114,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:1","content_ro":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","content_en":"142:1-3<\/strong> Though overwhelmed<\/em> by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","summary_en":"142:1-3 Though overwhelmed by his persecutors (142:6), the psalmist looks to the Lord for wisdom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":20455,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Jonah","title_en":"Book of Jonah","content_ro":"<h3>JONAH, Book of<\/h3>\nFifth book of the 12 Minor Prophets in the traditional arrangement of the books of the OT. It is a literary narrative rather than a series of prophetic oracles, and it gives the account of Jonah’s experiences after he disobeyed a command from the Lord directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Several extraordinary events recorded in the book have made it the center of much controversy as to its interpretation.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Authenticity<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe book of Jonah has been traditionally ascribed to Jonah the son of Amittai, a prophet of great influence, who ministered during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>\nThe content of the book describes Jonah as an intensely patriotic person, but his misguided patriotism caused him to rebel at the possibility of Israel’s former enemies receiving forgiveness from God. One of the most important lessons of the book emerges when God rebukes Jonah’s exclusivistic attitude (Jon 4:6-11).<\/p>\nJesus used two of the experiences of Jonah as signs to his generation. The three days and nights spent by Jonah in the great fish served as an analogy of Jesus’ death and resurrection (Mt 12:38-41). Also, the positive response of the Ninevites to Jonah’s preaching was used by Jesus as a condemnation of the failure of many in his generation to believe in him (Lk 11:32).<\/p>\nAuthenticity<\/p>\nThe unusual elements in the book of Jonah have led to widely varying views of its nature. Not only has the account of Jonah being swallowed by the fish led some to think the book to be of a fabulous nature, but the account of the repentance of the people of Nineveh (Jon 3:5) also has been regarded as highly unlikely.<\/p>\nThe historicity of the book has been championed by outstanding biblical scholars. The basic approach of these scholars has been to counter the arguments of those who deny its historicity and to point to what is regarded as positive evidence for the historicity of the book in Jesus’ allusions to the prophecy and in early Jewish tradition.<\/p>\nOpponents of the authenticity of Jonah point to the following difficulties: (1) The use of the expression “king of Nineveh” (3:6) appears to be an inaccuracy because Nineveh was the capital of Assyria. A contemporary would have referred to the king as the king of Assyria. (2) The use of the past tense to describe the city of Nineveh (v 3) seems to point to a much later date than the traditional view of the authorship of the book would permit. (3) The size of the city of Nineveh is described in greatly exaggerated terms (v 3). (4) The mass repentance of the Ninevites lacks historical support. (5) It is unlikely that a human being could exist within a fish for an extended period of time.<\/p>\nWith regard to the use of “king of Nineveh,” it should be noted that similar expressions may be found in the OT. Ahab, the king of Israel, is called “king of Samaria” (1 Kgs 21:1), and Ben-hadad, the king of Syria, is designated “king of Damascus” (2 Chr 24:23). The designation “king of Nineveh” is therefore not anomalous.<\/p>\nThe use of the past tense to describe the city of Nineveh may be regarded as nothing more than a simple narrative past tense describing the size of the city at the time that Jonah prophesied there.<\/p>\nThe description of the size of the city (“three days’ journey”) may be an indication of the length of time that it would take one to go through the suburbs included in the administrative district of Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe repentance of the Ninevites is not to be understood as a mass conversion to Yahweh, the God of Israel. The book of Jonah describes their response as repentance in view of the impending destruction threatened by Jonah (Jon 3:4). While secular history does not record such an event, there is evidence that such a response was possible. In less than a decade (765–759 BC<\/span>) the city of Nineveh had experienced a total eclipse of the sun and two serious plagues. One can understand how the citizens of Nineveh may have been prepared for the preaching of this prophet who came to them in such an unusual way.<\/p>\nIt should also be noted that one of the kings of Assyria, Adad-nirari III, limited his worship to the god Nebo. If the prophetic ministry of Jonah was active during the time of his reign (810–783 BC<\/span>), it is possible that the Jewish monotheism represented by Jonah may have found a more favorable climate than one would normally expect in a pagan society.<\/p>\nThe participation of the animals in the national penitence that followed Jonah’s preaching (3:7-8) is not unknown from history. The historian Herodotus records a similar event in the Persian Empire.<\/p>\nThe event that creates the greatest difficulty, however, is the experience of Jonah in the fish. It has often been pointed out that the gullets of most whales are not large enough to admit an object the size of a man. But the book does not say that it was a whale that swallowed Jonah, but simply a great fish (1:17). Even so, it is possible for a sperm whale to swallow an object as large as a man.<\/p>\nNumerous examples of individuals being swallowed by whales have been cited in the past. While many of these accounts may be disregarded as fancy, it would be wrong to uncritically reject all of them. (An interesting account of one of these experiences may be found in the Princeton Theological Review<\/em> 25, 1927, p. 636.) The experience of Jonah in the great fish need not be regarded as an absolute impossibility. The activities of God in history have often been accompanied by unusual or miraculous events.<\/p>\nThe difficulties of the book of Jonah have led many to regard the book as a prophetic parable rather than a record of historical fact. The most common interpretation is that the book is an expression of the universal concerns of God. As such, it inveighs against the exclusive nationalism of the Jews. This narrow-minded attitude, some suggest, fits best into the postexilic period, when the hatred of Israel for its former captors was still very bitter.<\/p>\nThere are several difficulties with this view. While there are a number of parables in the OT, none is as extensive as the book of Jonah. Also, since the major elements of a parable symbolize persons, objects, or concepts that contribute to the main teaching of the parable, the proponents of this view are hard pressed to show how the account of Jonah’s experience in the fish contributes to the central lesson of the parable.<\/p>\nAnother approach to the book is to regard it as an extended allegory. An allegory is a literary form, the basic elements of which are intended to symbolize or explain aspects of real life to which they are analogous. The intended meaning is usually evident or explained by the author. In the OT, allegories are short literary forms used to lend force to a pronouncement. The book of Jonah does not seem to fit this category. It is a narrative account with no evident meaning given to the various persons, objects, and events cited.<\/p>\nThere seems to be no convincing reason for rejecting the historicity of the book of Jonah on the basis of the arguments generally given. Jesus referred to the account of Jonah in a way that seems to imply his acceptance of its validity.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf Jonah was the son of Amittai cited in 2 Kings 14:25, the prophecy would have to be dated in the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (793–753 BC<\/span>). Jonah would then be one of the great eighth-century prophets who ministered during the Silver Age of Israel.<\/p>\nThose who understand the book to have been written by an author other than Jonah place the writing at various times, from the period following the fall of Nineveh to well into the postexilic period.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nArchaeological excavations at the site of ancient Nineveh have yielded many artifacts and literary works indicating that it was a cultural center for a great part of its history. In the Middle Assyrian period, the city of Nineveh was greatly enlarged and became an administrative center. Some of the most powerful Assyrian kings ruled from Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe city of Calah, to the south of Nineveh, had an area much smaller than Nineveh but housed almost 70,000 persons. The description of the vast population of Nineveh in the prophecy of Jonah seems to fit with this.<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Jonah is to teach that God’s grace was not limited to the Hebrew people. This lesson is taught in the dramatic climax of the book. Jonah, filled with self-pity, laments the loss of the plant that gave him shade. God shows Jonah’s concern for the plant in stark contrast to his own concern for the thousands of people of Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe book clearly sets forth the fact that God’s mercy was not the sole possession of the Hebrew people of Jonah’s time but was available to all through repentance. Even Israel’s enemies could experience God’s mercy.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Jonah begins with a command from the Lord to the prophet directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Jonah was reluctant to go to Nineveh because he knew that the Ninevites would repent. He would therefore find himself in the dubious position of proclaiming God’s mercy to the hated Assyrians. Therefore, he fled from Joppa by ship in a futile attempt to flee from the presence of God. He boarded a ship bound for Tarshish, a Phoenician colony in southern Spain. It was as far west as Jonah could flee within the scope of the ancient Mediterranean world (1:1-3).<\/p>\n\nGod would not allow his servant to disobey without chastisement, however (1:4-16). God’s love demanded Jonah’s discipline. The program of discipline commenced with a divinely originated storm (v 4). In the midst of the terrifying rage of this storm, the sailors busied themselves with supplications to their individual pagan deities and with casting excess cargo overboard (v 5). Through all the commotion Jonah was asleep in the hold of the ship.<\/p>\nThe sailors were as yet unaware that Jonah was the real problem. The captain of the ship aroused Jonah and told him to pray to his god for deliverance from the tempest (v 6).<\/p>\nReceiving no response to their supplications, the sailors proceeded to cast lots in an attempt to determine who on board was the cause of the wrath of the god who had brought the storm upon them (1:7); the lot indicated that Jonah was to blame. The sailors then wanted to know what god was responsible for the storm and why. Jonah’s testimony was simple and to the point: he was a Hebrew who worshiped the Lord who created both land and sea (v 9).<\/p>\nThe sailors asked Jonah what they should do to him since the storm was increasing in its fury (1:11). The captain had previously told Jonah to pray or perish. Now Jonah revealed that praying would not accomplish what his perishing could (v 12). He asked them to throw him into the sea.<\/p>\nBefore yielding to Jonah’s request, the sailors struggled to save the ship (1:13). Failing in their attempt, they cast him into the sea (v 15). Imagine the impression made on these sailors when the storm ceased as soon as Jonah’s body was in the sea. Their experience caused the ship’s crew to fear the Lord, and they offered a sacrifice and made vows to him (v 16).<\/p>\nBut God was not through with Jonah, for he prepared a great fish to swallow him (1:17). Jonah was in the belly of the fish for three days and nights (cf. Mt 12:38-41). From within the fish Jonah prayed to God (Jon 2:1), and thanked him for hearing his prayer and saving him from death in the sea (vv 7-8). Jonah’s deliverance brought him to the point of renewed devotion to God (v 9). It is significant that his prayer reflected a deep personal acquaintance with the Psalms (cf. Pss 3:8; 5:7; 18:4-19; 30:2-3; 31:6, 22; 39:9; 42:6-7; 59:17; 69:1-2; 120:1; 142:3; 144:2).<\/p>\nThe ultimate answer to Jonah’s prayers came when God provided him with the opportunity of obeying his commission and keeping his vows. The sea creature spit Jonah out upon the shore (Jon 2:10).<\/p>\nThe writer now turns his attention to God’s dealing with the city of Nineveh (chs 3–4). Jonah repented of his disobedience and manifested that repentance by going to Nineveh to declare God’s message (3:1-3). Upon his arrival in Nineveh, he proceeded to proclaim God’s message. The inhabitants of the city were told they had 40 days (v 4), but they evidently responded immediately.<\/p>\nThe people and their king repented in sackcloth and with fasting (3:5-6). Having repented privately, the king made a public proclamation to reinforce the response to God’s message (vv 7-9).<\/p>\nGod’s acceptance of Nineveh’s repentance (3:10) caused Jonah’s grudging attitude to return and he complained (4:1-3). His recently uttered psalm of prayerful praise to God (2:1-9) now turned to bitter grumbling. Jonah prayed again to God (4:2), revealing his reason for refusing to obey the first commission. He had personal knowledge of God’s loving and forgiving nature, and he resented that love and forgiveness being extended to the enemies of his country. In foolish abandon, Jonah asked to die rather than to see God’s work among the Ninevites (v 3).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion had been manifested to Nineveh, but he was also to show compassion again to Jonah by illustration and instruction (4:4-11). God’s quiet question, “Is it right for you to be angry about this?” must have probed Jonah’s innermost being (v 4). But the prophet preferred to put in a temporary shelter on the east side of Nineveh (v 5) waiting to see if anything would happen.<\/p>\nGod added a plant (something with large leaves) to the number of nature’s objects that he used in his dealings with Jonah (4:6). This provision for Jonah’s comfort brought him joy. But the plant was destroyed by a worm sent by God (v 7). Then God sent the hot sirocco wind to dry out the air, increase the heat, and add to Jonah’s misery (v 8). Again, Jonah begged to die.<\/p>\nFor the second time God questioned Jonah, “Is it right for you to be angry because the plant died?” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). The point of the illustration was being driven home to the insensitive prophet. Jonah, however, responded with more bitterness (v 9). Jonah was greatly agitated because the loss of the plant affected him personally, even though he had nothing to do with its creation (v 10). The Lord Yahweh had created man. The Lord was concerned for the welfare of the Ninevites. Did not the great Creator have the right to be agitated over the destruction of Nineveh with its 120,000 children and all its animals (v 11)? As Jonah had desired the preservation of the plant, so God had desired even more exceedingly the preservation of Nineveh.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jonah (Person); Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JONAH, Book of<\/h3>\nFifth book of the 12 Minor Prophets in the traditional arrangement of the books of the OT. It is a literary narrative rather than a series of prophetic oracles, and it gives the account of Jonah’s experiences after he disobeyed a command from the Lord directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Several extraordinary events recorded in the book have made it the center of much controversy as to its interpretation.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Authenticity<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThe book of Jonah has been traditionally ascribed to Jonah the son of Amittai, a prophet of great influence, who ministered during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (2 Kgs 14:25).<\/p>\nThe content of the book describes Jonah as an intensely patriotic person, but his misguided patriotism caused him to rebel at the possibility of Israel’s former enemies receiving forgiveness from God. One of the most important lessons of the book emerges when God rebukes Jonah’s exclusivistic attitude (Jon 4:6-11).<\/p>\nJesus used two of the experiences of Jonah as signs to his generation. The three days and nights spent by Jonah in the great fish served as an analogy of Jesus’ death and resurrection (Mt 12:38-41). Also, the positive response of the Ninevites to Jonah’s preaching was used by Jesus as a condemnation of the failure of many in his generation to believe in him (Lk 11:32).<\/p>\nAuthenticity<\/p>\nThe unusual elements in the book of Jonah have led to widely varying views of its nature. Not only has the account of Jonah being swallowed by the fish led some to think the book to be of a fabulous nature, but the account of the repentance of the people of Nineveh (Jon 3:5) also has been regarded as highly unlikely.<\/p>\nThe historicity of the book has been championed by outstanding biblical scholars. The basic approach of these scholars has been to counter the arguments of those who deny its historicity and to point to what is regarded as positive evidence for the historicity of the book in Jesus’ allusions to the prophecy and in early Jewish tradition.<\/p>\nOpponents of the authenticity of Jonah point to the following difficulties: (1) The use of the expression “king of Nineveh” (3:6) appears to be an inaccuracy because Nineveh was the capital of Assyria. A contemporary would have referred to the king as the king of Assyria. (2) The use of the past tense to describe the city of Nineveh (v 3) seems to point to a much later date than the traditional view of the authorship of the book would permit. (3) The size of the city of Nineveh is described in greatly exaggerated terms (v 3). (4) The mass repentance of the Ninevites lacks historical support. (5) It is unlikely that a human being could exist within a fish for an extended period of time.<\/p>\nWith regard to the use of “king of Nineveh,” it should be noted that similar expressions may be found in the OT. Ahab, the king of Israel, is called “king of Samaria” (1 Kgs 21:1), and Ben-hadad, the king of Syria, is designated “king of Damascus” (2 Chr 24:23). The designation “king of Nineveh” is therefore not anomalous.<\/p>\nThe use of the past tense to describe the city of Nineveh may be regarded as nothing more than a simple narrative past tense describing the size of the city at the time that Jonah prophesied there.<\/p>\nThe description of the size of the city (“three days’ journey”) may be an indication of the length of time that it would take one to go through the suburbs included in the administrative district of Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe repentance of the Ninevites is not to be understood as a mass conversion to Yahweh, the God of Israel. The book of Jonah describes their response as repentance in view of the impending destruction threatened by Jonah (Jon 3:4). While secular history does not record such an event, there is evidence that such a response was possible. In less than a decade (765–759 BC<\/span>) the city of Nineveh had experienced a total eclipse of the sun and two serious plagues. One can understand how the citizens of Nineveh may have been prepared for the preaching of this prophet who came to them in such an unusual way.<\/p>\nIt should also be noted that one of the kings of Assyria, Adad-nirari III, limited his worship to the god Nebo. If the prophetic ministry of Jonah was active during the time of his reign (810–783 BC<\/span>), it is possible that the Jewish monotheism represented by Jonah may have found a more favorable climate than one would normally expect in a pagan society.<\/p>\nThe participation of the animals in the national penitence that followed Jonah’s preaching (3:7-8) is not unknown from history. The historian Herodotus records a similar event in the Persian Empire.<\/p>\nThe event that creates the greatest difficulty, however, is the experience of Jonah in the fish. It has often been pointed out that the gullets of most whales are not large enough to admit an object the size of a man. But the book does not say that it was a whale that swallowed Jonah, but simply a great fish (1:17). Even so, it is possible for a sperm whale to swallow an object as large as a man.<\/p>\nNumerous examples of individuals being swallowed by whales have been cited in the past. While many of these accounts may be disregarded as fancy, it would be wrong to uncritically reject all of them. (An interesting account of one of these experiences may be found in the Princeton Theological Review<\/em> 25, 1927, p. 636.) The experience of Jonah in the great fish need not be regarded as an absolute impossibility. The activities of God in history have often been accompanied by unusual or miraculous events.<\/p>\nThe difficulties of the book of Jonah have led many to regard the book as a prophetic parable rather than a record of historical fact. The most common interpretation is that the book is an expression of the universal concerns of God. As such, it inveighs against the exclusive nationalism of the Jews. This narrow-minded attitude, some suggest, fits best into the postexilic period, when the hatred of Israel for its former captors was still very bitter.<\/p>\nThere are several difficulties with this view. While there are a number of parables in the OT, none is as extensive as the book of Jonah. Also, since the major elements of a parable symbolize persons, objects, or concepts that contribute to the main teaching of the parable, the proponents of this view are hard pressed to show how the account of Jonah’s experience in the fish contributes to the central lesson of the parable.<\/p>\nAnother approach to the book is to regard it as an extended allegory. An allegory is a literary form, the basic elements of which are intended to symbolize or explain aspects of real life to which they are analogous. The intended meaning is usually evident or explained by the author. In the OT, allegories are short literary forms used to lend force to a pronouncement. The book of Jonah does not seem to fit this category. It is a narrative account with no evident meaning given to the various persons, objects, and events cited.<\/p>\nThere seems to be no convincing reason for rejecting the historicity of the book of Jonah on the basis of the arguments generally given. Jesus referred to the account of Jonah in a way that seems to imply his acceptance of its validity.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf Jonah was the son of Amittai cited in 2 Kings 14:25, the prophecy would have to be dated in the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (793–753 BC<\/span>). Jonah would then be one of the great eighth-century prophets who ministered during the Silver Age of Israel.<\/p>\nThose who understand the book to have been written by an author other than Jonah place the writing at various times, from the period following the fall of Nineveh to well into the postexilic period.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nArchaeological excavations at the site of ancient Nineveh have yielded many artifacts and literary works indicating that it was a cultural center for a great part of its history. In the Middle Assyrian period, the city of Nineveh was greatly enlarged and became an administrative center. Some of the most powerful Assyrian kings ruled from Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe city of Calah, to the south of Nineveh, had an area much smaller than Nineveh but housed almost 70,000 persons. The description of the vast population of Nineveh in the prophecy of Jonah seems to fit with this.<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Jonah is to teach that God’s grace was not limited to the Hebrew people. This lesson is taught in the dramatic climax of the book. Jonah, filled with self-pity, laments the loss of the plant that gave him shade. God shows Jonah’s concern for the plant in stark contrast to his own concern for the thousands of people of Nineveh.<\/p>\nThe book clearly sets forth the fact that God’s mercy was not the sole possession of the Hebrew people of Jonah’s time but was available to all through repentance. Even Israel’s enemies could experience God’s mercy.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Jonah begins with a command from the Lord to the prophet directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Jonah was reluctant to go to Nineveh because he knew that the Ninevites would repent. He would therefore find himself in the dubious position of proclaiming God’s mercy to the hated Assyrians. Therefore, he fled from Joppa by ship in a futile attempt to flee from the presence of God. He boarded a ship bound for Tarshish, a Phoenician colony in southern Spain. It was as far west as Jonah could flee within the scope of the ancient Mediterranean world (1:1-3).<\/p>\n\nGod would not allow his servant to disobey without chastisement, however (1:4-16). God’s love demanded Jonah’s discipline. The program of discipline commenced with a divinely originated storm (v 4). In the midst of the terrifying rage of this storm, the sailors busied themselves with supplications to their individual pagan deities and with casting excess cargo overboard (v 5). Through all the commotion Jonah was asleep in the hold of the ship.<\/p>\nThe sailors were as yet unaware that Jonah was the real problem. The captain of the ship aroused Jonah and told him to pray to his god for deliverance from the tempest (v 6).<\/p>\nReceiving no response to their supplications, the sailors proceeded to cast lots in an attempt to determine who on board was the cause of the wrath of the god who had brought the storm upon them (1:7); the lot indicated that Jonah was to blame. The sailors then wanted to know what god was responsible for the storm and why. Jonah’s testimony was simple and to the point: he was a Hebrew who worshiped the Lord who created both land and sea (v 9).<\/p>\nThe sailors asked Jonah what they should do to him since the storm was increasing in its fury (1:11). The captain had previously told Jonah to pray or perish. Now Jonah revealed that praying would not accomplish what his perishing could (v 12). He asked them to throw him into the sea.<\/p>\nBefore yielding to Jonah’s request, the sailors struggled to save the ship (1:13). Failing in their attempt, they cast him into the sea (v 15). Imagine the impression made on these sailors when the storm ceased as soon as Jonah’s body was in the sea. Their experience caused the ship’s crew to fear the Lord, and they offered a sacrifice and made vows to him (v 16).<\/p>\nBut God was not through with Jonah, for he prepared a great fish to swallow him (1:17). Jonah was in the belly of the fish for three days and nights (cf. Mt 12:38-41). From within the fish Jonah prayed to God (Jon 2:1), and thanked him for hearing his prayer and saving him from death in the sea (vv 7-8). Jonah’s deliverance brought him to the point of renewed devotion to God (v 9). It is significant that his prayer reflected a deep personal acquaintance with the Psalms (cf. Pss 3:8; 5:7; 18:4-19; 30:2-3; 31:6, 22; 39:9; 42:6-7; 59:17; 69:1-2; 120:1; 142:3; 144:2).<\/p>\nThe ultimate answer to Jonah’s prayers came when God provided him with the opportunity of obeying his commission and keeping his vows. The sea creature spit Jonah out upon the shore (Jon 2:10).<\/p>\nThe writer now turns his attention to God’s dealing with the city of Nineveh (chs 3–4). Jonah repented of his disobedience and manifested that repentance by going to Nineveh to declare God’s message (3:1-3). Upon his arrival in Nineveh, he proceeded to proclaim God’s message. The inhabitants of the city were told they had 40 days (v 4), but they evidently responded immediately.<\/p>\nThe people and their king repented in sackcloth and with fasting (3:5-6). Having repented privately, the king made a public proclamation to reinforce the response to God’s message (vv 7-9).<\/p>\nGod’s acceptance of Nineveh’s repentance (3:10) caused Jonah’s grudging attitude to return and he complained (4:1-3). His recently uttered psalm of prayerful praise to God (2:1-9) now turned to bitter grumbling. Jonah prayed again to God (4:2), revealing his reason for refusing to obey the first commission. He had personal knowledge of God’s loving and forgiving nature, and he resented that love and forgiveness being extended to the enemies of his country. In foolish abandon, Jonah asked to die rather than to see God’s work among the Ninevites (v 3).<\/p>\nGod’s compassion had been manifested to Nineveh, but he was also to show compassion again to Jonah by illustration and instruction (4:4-11). God’s quiet question, “Is it right for you to be angry about this?” must have probed Jonah’s innermost being (v 4). But the prophet preferred to put in a temporary shelter on the east side of Nineveh (v 5) waiting to see if anything would happen.<\/p>\nGod added a plant (something with large leaves) to the number of nature’s objects that he used in his dealings with Jonah (4:6). This provision for Jonah’s comfort brought him joy. But the plant was destroyed by a worm sent by God (v 7). Then God sent the hot sirocco wind to dry out the air, increase the heat, and add to Jonah’s misery (v 8). Again, Jonah begged to die.<\/p>\nFor the second time God questioned Jonah, “Is it right for you to be angry because the plant died?” (4:9, nlt<\/span>). The point of the illustration was being driven home to the insensitive prophet. Jonah, however, responded with more bitterness (v 9). Jonah was greatly agitated because the loss of the plant affected him personally, even though he had nothing to do with its creation (v 10). The Lord Yahweh had created man. The Lord was concerned for the welfare of the Ninevites. Did not the great Creator have the right to be agitated over the destruction of Nineveh with its 120,000 children and all its animals (v 11)? As Jonah had desired the preservation of the plant, so God had desired even more exceedingly the preservation of Nineveh.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jonah (Person); Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JONAH, Book of Fifth book of the 12 Minor Prophets in the traditional arrangement of the books of the OT. It is a literary narrative rather than a series of prophetic oracles, and it gives the account of Jonah’s experiences after he disobeyed a command from the Lord directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Several extraordinary events recorded in the book have made it the center of much controversy as to its interpretation. Preview • Author • Authenticity • Date • Purpose • Content A...","summary_en":"JONAH, Book of Fifth book of the 12 Minor Prophets in the traditional arrangement of the books of the OT. It is a literary narrative rather than a series of prophetic oracles, and it gives the account of Jonah’s experiences after he disobeyed a command from the Lord directing him to preach to the people of Nineveh. Several extraordinary events recorded in the book have made it the center of much controversy as to its interpretation. Preview • Author • Authenticity • Date • Purpose • Content A...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50237,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:3","content_ro":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","content_en":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","summary_en":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77863,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:3","content_ro":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","content_en":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","summary_en":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105489,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:3","content_ro":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","content_en":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","summary_en":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133115,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:3","content_ro":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","content_en":"142:3-4<\/strong> The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","summary_en":"142:3-4 The psalmist reaches a point of despair (see 77:3), and the Lord cares for him in his distress. The psalmist commits himself to the Lord’s wisdom (see Ps 139) but laments his entrapment by the wicked (5:9-10; 140:5; 141:9; 142:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":17485,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inheritance","title_en":"Inheritance","content_ro":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\nLegacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\nLegal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\nWe learn something of early-second-millennium BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\nAccording to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\nAccording to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\nHow highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\nIn the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\nIn another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\nTheological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nThe conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\nThe theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\nSince Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nIn the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\nThat this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\nIn later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\nWe also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\nDoubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\nPaul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\nIndeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nWith a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\nIn Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\nLegacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\nLegal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\nWe learn something of early-second-millennium BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\nAccording to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\nAccording to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\nHow highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\nIn the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\nIn another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\nTheological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nThe conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\nThe theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\nSince Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nIn the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\nThat this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\nIn later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\nWe also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\nDoubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\nPaul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\nIndeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nWith a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\nIn Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","summary_en":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50238,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:5","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:5","content_ro":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","content_en":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","summary_en":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77864,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:5","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:5","content_ro":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","content_en":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","summary_en":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105490,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:5","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:5","content_ro":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","content_en":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","summary_en":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133116,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:5","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:5","content_ro":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","content_en":"142:5<\/strong> Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life<\/em> (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","summary_en":"142:5 Though he is alone, the psalmist’s trust remains in the Lord, who is his life (see 9:9; 16:5; 27:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":50239,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:6","content_ro":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","content_en":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","summary_en":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77865,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:6","content_ro":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","content_en":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","summary_en":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105491,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:6","content_ro":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","content_en":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","summary_en":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133117,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:6","content_ro":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","content_en":"142:6-7<\/strong> Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","summary_en":"142:6-7 Though overwhelmed by loneliness and trouble, the psalmist focuses on the Lord’s goodness and protection. He knows that the Lord alone is his Redeemer, so he offers his praise.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":50240,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:7","content_ro":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","content_en":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","summary_en":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":77866,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:7","content_ro":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","content_en":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","summary_en":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":105492,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:7","content_ro":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","content_en":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","summary_en":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133118,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 142:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 142:7","content_ro":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","content_en":"142:7<\/strong> His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison<\/em> (see 107:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","summary_en":"142:7 His experience of confinement and duress is like being in prison (see 107:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

Psalmi 142

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Psalmi 142

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