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Psalmi 2

¹ Pentruce se întărâtă nemulţumirile, şi pentruce cugetă popoarele lucruri deşerte?

² Împăraţii pământului se răscoală, şi domnitorii se sfătuiesc împreună împotriva Domnului şi împotriva Unsului Său, zicând:

³ ,,Să le rupem legăturile şi să scăpăm de lanţurile lor!`` -

⁴ Celce şade în ceruri râde, Domnul Îşi bate joc de ei.

⁵ Apoi, în mânia Lui, le vorbeşte, şi-i îngrozeşte cu urgia Sa, zicând:

⁶ ,,Totuş, Eu am uns pe Împăratul Meu pe Sion, muntele Meu cel sfânt.``

⁷ ,,Eu voi vesti hotărârea Lui,`` -zice Unsul-,,Domnul Mi-a zis: ,Tu eşti Fiul Meu! Astăzi Te-am născut.

⁸ Cere-Mi, şi-Ţi voi da neamurile de moştenire, şi marginile pământului în stăpânire!

⁹ Tu le vei zdrobi cu un toiag de fer, şi le vei sfărâma ca pe vasul unui olar.`

¹⁰ Acum dar, împăraţi, purtaţi-vă cu înţelepciune! Luaţi învăţătură, judecătorii pământului!

¹¹ Slujiţi Domnului cu frică, şi bucuraţi-vă, tremurând.

¹² Daţi cinste Fiului, ca să nu Se mânie, şi să nu pieriţi pe calea voastră, căci mânia Lui este gata să se aprindă! Ferice de toţi cîţi se încred în El!

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":8859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Day of the Lord","title_en":"Day of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>DAY OF THE LORD<\/h3>\nExpression used by OT prophets (as early as the eighth-century BC<\/span> prophet Amos) to signify a time in which God actively intervenes in history, primarily for judgment. Thus “the day of the Lord” is also called “the day of the Lord<\/span>’s anger” (Zep 2:2).<\/p>\nSometimes “the day of the Lord” is used in the OT to speak of a past judgment (Lam 2:22). More often, an impending future judgment is in view (Jl 2:1-11). Ultimately, though, the term refers to climactic future judgment of the world (Jl 3:14-21; Mal 4:5). Often, prophecy of a near-future event and an end-time prophecy are merged—the immediate judgment being a preview of the final Day of the Lord. The prophecy of Isaiah against Babylon is an example (Is 13:5-10). Jesus combined events described there with other prophecies to explain his second coming (Mk 13:24-37). Another example is Joel’s prophecy of the Day of the Lord (Jl 1:15–2:11). Though the prophet initially spoke of God’s judgment on Israel by a locust plague, that judgment prompted further pronouncements about a final Day of the Lord far beyond Joel’s time (2:14-17, 31). That Day of the Lord extended even beyond the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost predicted by Joel’s prophecy (Jl 2:28-32; Acts 2:16-21; Rv 6:12-13). The NT uses the term exclusively to mean the end time.<\/p>\nThe final Day of the Lord is characterized in the Bible as a day of gloom, darkness, and judgment. Associated with God’s judgment is language depicting changes in nature, especially a darkening of the sun, moon, and stars (Is 13:10; Jl 2:31; 3:15; Mt 24:29; Rv 6:12). Nations will be judged for their rebellion against God’s anointed people and king (Jl 3:19; cf. Ps 2). Israel is counseled not to be eager for that day, because it will also include judgment on the chosen nation (Am 5:18-20). But the prophets promise that a believing “remnant” will be saved by looking to the Messiah they once rejected (Jl 2:32; Zec 12:10). Following the judgment, the future Day of the Lord will be a time of prosperity, restoration, and blessing for Israel (Jl 3:18-21).<\/p>\nThe more explicit NT expressions—“the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), and “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16)—are more personal and more positive. They point to final events related to Christian believers, who will not experience the wrath of God (1 Thes 5:9). When the Day of the Lord comes, the earth will be renewed and purified through a judgment of fire (2 Pt 3:10-13). In the book of Revelation the final purging seems to come after the Millennium—that is, the 1,000-year reign of Christ (Rv 21:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Eschatology; Last Days; Last Judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAY OF THE LORD<\/h3>\nExpression used by OT prophets (as early as the eighth-century BC<\/span> prophet Amos) to signify a time in which God actively intervenes in history, primarily for judgment. Thus “the day of the Lord” is also called “the day of the Lord<\/span>’s anger” (Zep 2:2).<\/p>\nSometimes “the day of the Lord” is used in the OT to speak of a past judgment (Lam 2:22). More often, an impending future judgment is in view (Jl 2:1-11). Ultimately, though, the term refers to climactic future judgment of the world (Jl 3:14-21; Mal 4:5). Often, prophecy of a near-future event and an end-time prophecy are merged—the immediate judgment being a preview of the final Day of the Lord. The prophecy of Isaiah against Babylon is an example (Is 13:5-10). Jesus combined events described there with other prophecies to explain his second coming (Mk 13:24-37). Another example is Joel’s prophecy of the Day of the Lord (Jl 1:15–2:11). Though the prophet initially spoke of God’s judgment on Israel by a locust plague, that judgment prompted further pronouncements about a final Day of the Lord far beyond Joel’s time (2:14-17, 31). That Day of the Lord extended even beyond the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost predicted by Joel’s prophecy (Jl 2:28-32; Acts 2:16-21; Rv 6:12-13). The NT uses the term exclusively to mean the end time.<\/p>\nThe final Day of the Lord is characterized in the Bible as a day of gloom, darkness, and judgment. Associated with God’s judgment is language depicting changes in nature, especially a darkening of the sun, moon, and stars (Is 13:10; Jl 2:31; 3:15; Mt 24:29; Rv 6:12). Nations will be judged for their rebellion against God’s anointed people and king (Jl 3:19; cf. Ps 2). Israel is counseled not to be eager for that day, because it will also include judgment on the chosen nation (Am 5:18-20). But the prophets promise that a believing “remnant” will be saved by looking to the Messiah they once rejected (Jl 2:32; Zec 12:10). Following the judgment, the future Day of the Lord will be a time of prosperity, restoration, and blessing for Israel (Jl 3:18-21).<\/p>\nThe more explicit NT expressions—“the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:8), “the day of the Lord Jesus” (1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 1:14), and “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10; 2:16)—are more personal and more positive. They point to final events related to Christian believers, who will not experience the wrath of God (1 Thes 5:9). When the Day of the Lord comes, the earth will be renewed and purified through a judgment of fire (2 Pt 3:10-13). In the book of Revelation the final purging seems to come after the Millennium—that is, the 1,000-year reign of Christ (Rv 21:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Eschatology; Last Days; Last Judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAY OF THE LORD Expression used by OT prophets (as early as the eighth-century BC prophet Amos) to signify a time in which God actively intervenes in history, primarily for judgment. Thus “the day of the Lord” is also called “the day of the Lord’s anger” (Zep 2:2). Sometimes “the day of the Lord” is used in the OT to speak of a past judgment (Lam 2:22). More often, an impending future judgment is in view (Jl 2:1-11). Ultimately, though, the term refers to climactic future judgment of the worl...","summary_en":"DAY OF THE LORD Expression used by OT prophets (as early as the eighth-century BC prophet Amos) to signify a time in which God actively intervenes in history, primarily for judgment. Thus “the day of the Lord” is also called “the day of the Lord’s anger” (Zep 2:2). Sometimes “the day of the Lord” is used in the OT to speak of a past judgment (Lam 2:22). More often, an impending future judgment is in view (Jl 2:1-11). Ultimately, though, the term refers to climactic future judgment of the worl...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14315,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\nGod’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\nIn the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\nIn the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (<\/em>onoma<\/span>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\nWith regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\nThe Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\nThe name ’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term ’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be ’ul<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition ’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word ’alim<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. ’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). ’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that ’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of ’El<\/span>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of ’Eloah<\/span>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\nThe plural form, ’Elohim<\/span>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning ’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name ’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God (<\/em>’Elohim<\/span>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which ’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\nSome scholars point to the use of ’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be ’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, ’<\/span>Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\nThe name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [’<\/span>Eloah<\/span>], but the Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\nAnother closely related name is ’Elah<\/span>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think ’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of ’Eloah<\/span>.<\/em> Its root is said to be ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as ’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\nThree other names of God include the term ’El<\/span>:<\/em><\/p>\n’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads ’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span>.<\/em> It is believed that the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb ‘alah<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term ‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form (<\/em>Shaddai<\/span>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term Shaddai<\/span>.<\/em> Some have begun with shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of shad<\/span> (<\/em>shadah<\/span>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which ’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between shadad<\/span> and Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as ’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates ’El Shaddai<\/span> as Pantokrator<\/span>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term ‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. ‘Olam<\/span>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, ‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of ’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. ’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with ’Elohim<\/span>.<\/em> Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as Yah<\/span> and Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\nThe exact meaning of the name Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, hawah<\/span>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the qal<\/span> or hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the hiphil<\/span> form read Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\nTranslators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as kurios<\/span>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered Yahweh<\/span> as “Lord<\/span>.” But ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The kjv<\/span>, for example, translates Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and ’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use Yahweh<\/span> (see jb<\/span> and njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either ’Elohim<\/span> or ’Adonai<\/span> for Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of ’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\nThe interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as ’<\/span>El Shaddai<\/span>,<\/em> but by my name Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> They knew him as ’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\nThis name Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\nIn view of the richness of the name Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb saba<\/span>’<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\nThe compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\nSeveral other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\nYahweh-Nissi<\/span> (nissi<\/span>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rapha<\/span> (rapha’<\/span>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rohi<\/span> (ro‘i<\/span>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\nYahweh-Jireh<\/span> (yir’eh<\/span>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (shalom<\/span>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term tsadaq<\/span>,<\/em> “righteousness.” Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\nThe word ’adan<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun ’adon<\/span>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. ’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\nIn the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example ’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> ’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> and ’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and ’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\nThe personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\nThe term ’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\nIn the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\nIsaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\nThe term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\nThe messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\nThe name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\nThe Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\nTheos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names ’El<\/span>and ’Elohim<\/span>;<\/em> ‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as Hupsistos<\/span>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). Pantokrator<\/span> (‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with Theos<\/span>.<\/em> The name Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\nKurios<\/span>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names Yahweh<\/span> and ‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> yet the NT does give Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\nDespotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\nIn the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\nGod’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\nIn the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\nIn the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (<\/em>onoma<\/span>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\nWith regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\nThe Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\nThe name ’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term ’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be ’ul<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition ’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word ’alim<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. ’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). ’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that ’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of ’El<\/span>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of ’Eloah<\/span>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\nThe plural form, ’Elohim<\/span>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning ’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name ’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God (<\/em>’Elohim<\/span>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which ’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\nSome scholars point to the use of ’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be ’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, ’<\/span>Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\nThe name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [’<\/span>Eloah<\/span>], but the Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\nAnother closely related name is ’Elah<\/span>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think ’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of ’Eloah<\/span>.<\/em> Its root is said to be ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as ’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\nThree other names of God include the term ’El<\/span>:<\/em><\/p>\n’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads ’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span>.<\/em> It is believed that the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb ‘alah<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term ‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form (<\/em>Shaddai<\/span>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term Shaddai<\/span>.<\/em> Some have begun with shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of shad<\/span> (<\/em>shadah<\/span>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which ’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between shadad<\/span> and Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as ’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates ’El Shaddai<\/span> as Pantokrator<\/span>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term ‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. ‘Olam<\/span>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, ‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of ’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. ’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with ’Elohim<\/span>.<\/em> Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as Yah<\/span> and Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\nThe exact meaning of the name Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, hawah<\/span>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the qal<\/span> or hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the hiphil<\/span> form read Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\nTranslators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as kurios<\/span>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered Yahweh<\/span> as “Lord<\/span>.” But ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The kjv<\/span>, for example, translates Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and ’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use Yahweh<\/span> (see jb<\/span> and njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either ’Elohim<\/span> or ’Adonai<\/span> for Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of ’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\nThe interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as ’<\/span>El Shaddai<\/span>,<\/em> but by my name Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> They knew him as ’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\nThis name Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\nIn view of the richness of the name Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb saba<\/span>’<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\nThe compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\nSeveral other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\nYahweh-Nissi<\/span> (nissi<\/span>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rapha<\/span> (rapha’<\/span>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rohi<\/span> (ro‘i<\/span>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\nYahweh-Jireh<\/span> (yir’eh<\/span>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (shalom<\/span>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term tsadaq<\/span>,<\/em> “righteousness.” Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\nThe word ’adan<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun ’adon<\/span>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. ’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\nIn the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example ’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> ’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> and ’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and ’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\nThe personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\nThe term ’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\nIn the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\nIsaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\nThe term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\nThe messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\nThe name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\nThe Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\nTheos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names ’El<\/span>and ’Elohim<\/span>;<\/em> ‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as Hupsistos<\/span>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). Pantokrator<\/span> (‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with Theos<\/span>.<\/em> The name Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\nKurios<\/span>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names Yahweh<\/span> and ‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> yet the NT does give Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\nDespotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\nIn the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25462,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31968,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\nPoems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Authors<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Structure<\/p>\n• Canonicity<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\nThe preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\nEvidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\nFive points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\nIn conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nOnce David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\nThe book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nAs the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah<\/span>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\nStructure<\/p>\nThe Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\nCanonicity<\/p>\nIn the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nIt must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\nPurpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\nIn both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\nThe monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\nThe Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\nThe Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\nPassages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\nWhatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\nIt is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\nPsalms of praise<\/p>\nRoyal, messianic psalms<\/p>\nPassion psalms<\/p>\nPsalms about Zion<\/p>\nLaments<\/p>\nImprecatory psalms<\/p>\nPenitential psalms<\/p>\nWisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\nPsalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\nThe Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\nMost of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nOther psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\nThe four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\nThis group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\nThese are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\nApproximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\nThe cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\nThe poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\nIn the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\nPsalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\nWhile it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\nThe historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\nWhile some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nThe difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40006,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"A Man of God David","title_en":"A Man of God David","content_ro":"<h3>David, A Man of God<\/h3>\n<blockquote>David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom.<\/p><\/blockquote>\nFrom David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of the resurrection is expressed in Psalm 16, as the apostle Peter noted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:25-28).<\/p>\nAwareness of a vital personal relationship with God is expressed more consistently by David than by any of the faithful men and women who preceded him. He knew that it was not legalistic observance of rules or rituals that made him acceptable to God. Offering and sacrifice could not atone for sin if one had no accompanying contrition and humility. Many of David’s prayers are as appropriate for Christians as they were for God-fearing people in the OT. David’s writings show that “knowing God” was as real in OT times as it was for the apostle Paul, even though the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ was still in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David, A Man of God<\/h3>\n<blockquote>David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom.<\/p><\/blockquote>\nFrom David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of the resurrection is expressed in Psalm 16, as the apostle Peter noted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:25-28).<\/p>\nAwareness of a vital personal relationship with God is expressed more consistently by David than by any of the faithful men and women who preceded him. He knew that it was not legalistic observance of rules or rituals that made him acceptable to God. Offering and sacrifice could not atone for sin if one had no accompanying contrition and humility. Many of David’s prayers are as appropriate for Christians as they were for God-fearing people in the OT. David’s writings show that “knowing God” was as real in OT times as it was for the apostle Paul, even though the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ was still in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"David, A Man of God David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom. From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of ...","summary_en":"David, A Man of God David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom. From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of ...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","summary_en":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","summary_en":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","content_en":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","summary_en":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76410,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","summary_en":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76411,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","summary_en":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76412,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","content_en":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","summary_en":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104036,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","summary_en":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104037,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","summary_en":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104038,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","content_en":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","summary_en":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131662,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","content_en":"Ps 2<\/strong> This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","summary_en":"Ps 2 This royal psalm pertains to the Lord’s appointment of a king descended from David. It celebrates the mission of all the kings in David’s line, and it introduces the hope of an ideal ruler who will accomplish the Lord’s goal of bringing all nations into submission (2:11) or to destruction (2:9). The New Testament identifies Jesus as this descendant (see Acts 13:33; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 19:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131663,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:1-3<\/strong> Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","summary_en":"2:1-3 Their futile paths lead to death (1:4, 6), but fallen human beings unite in opposing the true God and his Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131664,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:1","content_ro":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","content_en":"2:1<\/strong> plans:<\/em> The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","summary_en":"2:1 plans: The Hebrew verb rendered “meditate” in 1:2 here suggests an attitude of opposing the Lord in speech (Isa 59:13) or in thought (Ps 38:12; Prov 24:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62566,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Royal Psalms","title_en":"Royal Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","summary_en":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62859,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64702,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65770,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Climax of Scripture","title_en":"The Climax of Scripture","content_ro":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","summary_en":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66059,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66755,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Realm and the New","title_en":"The Old Realm and the New","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","summary_en":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90192,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Royal Psalms","title_en":"Royal Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","summary_en":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90485,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92328,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93396,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Climax of Scripture","title_en":"The Climax of Scripture","content_ro":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","summary_en":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93685,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94381,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Realm and the New","title_en":"The Old Realm and the New","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","summary_en":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117818,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Royal Psalms","title_en":"Royal Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","summary_en":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118111,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119954,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121022,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Climax of Scripture","title_en":"The Climax of Scripture","content_ro":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","summary_en":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121311,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122007,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Realm and the New","title_en":"The Old Realm and the New","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","summary_en":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145444,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Royal Psalms","title_en":"Royal Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Royal Psalms<\/h3>\nThe royal psalms<\/em> all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms.<\/p>\nBelief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace (72:1-3).<\/p>\nThe royal psalms express the hope and aspirations of the dynasty of David. But with its corruption and failure, the dynasty came to an apparent end (89:38-45). Yet hope remained alive for the future of a king descended from David who would serve as God’s agent. The royal psalms maintain this hope for a king whose perfect obedience would guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and the perpetual benefits of his reign.<\/p>\nIn this sense, the royal psalms may also be called messianic psalms<\/em> in that they express hope in a messianic agent, an ideal king descended from David. Jesus stated that the psalmists wrote of him (Luke 24:44), and other NT writers affirmed the identification of Jesus as the Messiah. Some of the most significant links to Christ are as follows:<\/p>\n<li>Psalm 2 is associated with Israel’s king, the descendant of David. Nevertheless, it speaks of a universal vindication and rule that far transcends even David’s or Solomon’s reigns (see Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 45 is a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, yet it speaks of a permanent rule (45:6).<\/li>\n<li>Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (see Matt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). It speaks of the privileges, universal victory, and continuing priesthood of David and his successors. Such language would be hyperbole, and possibly misleading, except for its fulfillment in Jesus. In contrast to the angels who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (see Luke 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority over all things at God’s right hand (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 61; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144; Acts 2:34-35; 13:33; Heb 1:5, 13; 5:5-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","summary_en":"Royal Psalms The royal psalms all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually regarded as the royal psalms. Belief in God’s kingship is the foundation of the royal psalms (see Ps 2). Each king in David’s dynasty served as messianic agent—i.e., he represented God’s kingship. As God’s representative, the Davidic king was expected to uphold the qualities of justice, righteousness, f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145737,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Questions and Doubt","title_en":"Questions and Doubt","content_ro":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Questions and Doubt<\/h3>\nThe psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73).<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he seems to have abandoned the godly (77:7). Other questions call attention to the success of the wicked (10:13), the impotence of the godly (11:3), the election of Zion (68:16), the power of God (114:5-6; 147:17), the folly of the nations (2:1), and the issue of injustice (82:2). The psalmists question, examine, challenge, doubt, and occasionally despair over God’s seeming lack of concern.<\/p>\nThe psalmists’ questions may also lead to praise and worship: “Who can list the glorious miracles of the Lord<\/span>? Who can ever praise him enough?” (106:2). The question, “Who will come from Mount Zion to rescue Israel?” (53:6) calls attention to the answer: The Lord rescues his people. For many questions, the implied answer brings praise to the Lord: “Whom have I in heaven but you? I desire you more than anything on earth” (73:25; see also 89:8). Questions may also express wonder at God’s grace (8:4; 130:3; 144:3).<\/p>\nAsking good questions can be the beginning of a dialogue with the Lord that leads us along the path of wisdom and results in worship and praise.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1; 4:2; 6:3; 10:1; 11:3; 13:1-6; 22:1; 35:17; 42:1-11; 43:1-5; 44:23-24; 53:6; 60:9-10; 68:16; 73:1–74:23; 77:8-9; 79:5; 80:4, 12; 82:2; 83:2; 85:5-6; 88:14; 89:1-52; 90:11, 13; 94:3-4, 16, 20; 101:2; 108:10-11; 114:5-6; 119:82, 84; 137:4; 147:17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","summary_en":"Questions and Doubt The psalmists are not afraid to ask questions and express doubts. The number of questions in a psalm indicates the intensity of the mood or the significance of the issue at hand. The psalms with the greatest number of questions raise the important issues of God’s perceived abandonment (Ps 13; Pss 42–43; 74; 89) and the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73). The psalmists’ questions clarify life issues. Some questions ask whether the Lord is the true God (94:9-10) and why he see...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147580,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\nIn the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\nOne heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\nIsrael’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148648,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Climax of Scripture","title_en":"The Climax of Scripture","content_ro":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Climax of Scripture<\/h3>\nThe account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him.<\/p>\nThe two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah! Their hopes were shattered, however, when he was arrested and crucified.<\/p>\nJesus responded by rebuking them for not reading the Scriptures attentively enough. The suffering of the Messiah was predicted all along in Scripture. Luke then relates how Jesus took the two disciples on a tour of Scripture, explaining to them “from all the Scriptures the things concerning himself” (Luke 24:27).<\/p>\nAlthough Jesus does not specify which Old Testament passages speak of the suffering Messiah, various texts are cited elsewhere. Jesus is the rejected stone that becomes the cornerstone, the foundation for a new temple of God (Ps 118:22, cited in Luke 20:17); the suffering Servant of the Lord, who is treated like a common criminal (Isa 53:12, cited in Luke 22:37) and who is mocked, insulted and spit upon by his opponents (Isa 50:6, alluded to in Luke 18:32); the anointed king rejected by rulers and the people of Israel, but vindicated by God (Ps 2:1–2, cited in Acts 4:25–28); the descendant of David who will not be abandoned to the grave by God (Ps 16:8–11, cited in Acts 2:25–28).<\/p>\nAccording to Luke 24:27, Jesus surveyed the whole story of Israel’s history and showed how it all leads to and climaxes in the coming of Jesus the Messiah, God’s agent of salvation. This is similar to how Paul describes Christ as having “accomplished the purpose for which the law was given” (Rom 10:4). All the Old Testament Scriptures—including the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:44)—point to God’s story of salvation, which reaches its climax and ultimate purpose in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nLuke 24:13-49; Rom 10:4<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","summary_en":"The Climax of Scripture The account of the two disciples on the road to Emmaus is significant not only as a resurrection appearance—and so as proof of Jesus’ victory over death—but also as a key moment of revelation concerning the role of the Messiah and the Old Testament prophecies about him. The two disciples pointed out to their anonymous traveling companion that this man named Jesus had shown himself to be a great prophet through his teaching and miracles. But they had hoped that he might...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148937,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The World","title_en":"The World","content_ro":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The World<\/h3>\nOne of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos<\/span>). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos<\/span> refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16).<\/p>\nAlthough it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19). The world is dead and needs life (6:33, 51), yet it hates the one who can save it (7:7). The world is under the dominion of Satan (12:31), who will one day be judged.<\/p>\nGod loves the world of humanity, despite its hostility and rebellion against him. Jesus died to take away the sin of the world (1:29; 3:16-17; 1 Jn 2:2). But God’s love for the world he created stands alongside his necessary judgment of the world (John 3:18-21, 36; 5:27-30; 12:47-48). Christ’s followers experience this same tension in their mission. We are called into the world to bring the message of God’s love, but we will experience conflict because the world will be hostile to our message (see 15:18-27; 17:13-26).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 6:11-12; Pss 2:1-6; 9:8; Isa 61:11; 66:16; Matt 5:14; 13:38-40; John 1:9-10; 3:16-19; 7:7; 8:12; 14:17-19; 15:18-19; 16:7-9, 33; John 17:5-26; Acts 17:31; 1 Cor 1:20-28; 3:3; 6:2; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 2:2; Col 2:20; Jas 4:4; 2 Pet 1:4; 2:20; 1 Jn 2:15-16; 4:3-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","summary_en":"The World One of the most frequently used words in John is “world” (Greek kosmos). In Greek-speaking Jewish thought, kosmos refers to the heavens and the earth as created by God (Gen 1; see also John 1:3, 10; 17:5, 24). John extends the concept to include the world of humanity (e.g., 1:10; 3:16). Although it was created as good, the human world is hostile to God (1:10-11; 3:19-20; 12:37-41). It is controlled by a darkness that cannot comprehend the light and, in fact, resists the light (3:19)...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149633,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Old Realm and the New","title_en":"The Old Realm and the New","content_ro":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Old Realm and the New<\/h3>\nJews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm to which they belong.<\/p>\nEach realm is headed by a man who represents its constituents. The old realm of sin and death is headed by Adam, the first man, while the new realm of forgiveness and life is headed by Christ. By nature, all human beings are in the old realm of sin and death and are represented by Adam, the first man—whose sin and death control the destiny of all people (5:12, 18-19). Those who put their faith in God through Christ are transferred by faith into the new realm of life. God appointed Jesus Christ as a “second Adam” (see 5:14). By obeying God and fulfilling God’s will, Jesus won a decisive victory over the realm of sin that Adam had inaugurated (5:18-19). By receiving God’s gift of grace (5:17), people accept Jesus as their head and look forward to eternal life.<\/p>\nThose who are in the new realm are identified with Christ and enjoy the benefits of union with him. They have “died with Christ,” they have been “buried with Christ,” and their present new life with Christ is an anticipation of the day when they will “live with him” forever (6:3-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:1-10; 110:2; 145:13; Dan 2:31-45; 7:1-28; Matt 3:2; 6:10; 7:13; 8:11-12; 12:25-28; 13:44-52; 20:25-28; John 18:36; Rom 5:12–8:39; 14:17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:20-28; Gal 5:16-26; Eph 1:3, 20; 2:6; 5:1-20; Col 1:13-14; Heb 6:4-5; 12:18-29; Rev 11:15; 12:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","summary_en":"The Old Realm and the New Jews in Paul’s day perceived a contrast between the “present evil age” and a “glorious age to come.” Throughout Romans 5–8, Paul uses these contrasting realms to conceptualize our experience of salvation. The old realm is ruled by death (5:12-21), sin (ch 6), the law (ch 7), and sinful nature (8:1-11). The new realm is characterized by life (ch 5), righteous living (ch 6), grace (ch 6), and the Holy Spirit (ch 8). People’s destinies are directly impacted by the realm...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":2192,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anointed Ones Anointed One","title_en":"One, Anointed Ones, Anointed","content_ro":"<h3>ANOINTED ONE, ANOINTED ONES<\/h3>\nIn the NT, Jesus Christ is portrayed as fulfilling the three offices of prophet, priest, and king. He is, supremely, God’s Anointed One. “Messiah” is the term for “anointed one” derived directly from the Hebrew word for anointed; “Christ” is the same title derived from the Greek word for “anointee.” The true anointing of Messiah (Ps 2:2; Dn 9:25-26) is spiritual; that is, it is done by the Holy Spirit (Is 61:1; Lk 4:1, 18-19). That Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the Anointed One (Messiah) of OT prophecy was evidenced in his anointing by the Holy Spirit and by the miracles that followed (Jn 1:32-51; Lk 4:33-37). By extension, Christians also are said to be anointed by the Holy Spirit, enabling them to understand their faith and to live godly lives (2 Cor 1:21-22; 1 Jn 2:20, 27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANOINTED ONE, ANOINTED ONES<\/h3>\nIn the NT, Jesus Christ is portrayed as fulfilling the three offices of prophet, priest, and king. He is, supremely, God’s Anointed One. “Messiah” is the term for “anointed one” derived directly from the Hebrew word for anointed; “Christ” is the same title derived from the Greek word for “anointee.” The true anointing of Messiah (Ps 2:2; Dn 9:25-26) is spiritual; that is, it is done by the Holy Spirit (Is 61:1; Lk 4:1, 18-19). That Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the Anointed One (Messiah) of OT prophecy was evidenced in his anointing by the Holy Spirit and by the miracles that followed (Jn 1:32-51; Lk 4:33-37). By extension, Christians also are said to be anointed by the Holy Spirit, enabling them to understand their faith and to live godly lives (2 Cor 1:21-22; 1 Jn 2:20, 27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANOINTED ONE, ANOINTED ONES In the NT, Jesus Christ is portrayed as fulfilling the three offices of prophet, priest, and king. He is, supremely, God’s Anointed One. “Messiah” is the term for “anointed one” derived directly from the Hebrew word for anointed; “Christ” is the same title derived from the Greek word for “anointee.” The true anointing of Messiah (Ps 2:2; Dn 9:25-26) is spiritual; that is, it is done by the Holy Spirit (Is 61:1; Lk 4:1, 18-19). That Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the ...","summary_en":"ANOINTED ONE, ANOINTED ONES In the NT, Jesus Christ is portrayed as fulfilling the three offices of prophet, priest, and king. He is, supremely, God’s Anointed One. “Messiah” is the term for “anointed one” derived directly from the Hebrew word for anointed; “Christ” is the same title derived from the Greek word for “anointee.” The true anointing of Messiah (Ps 2:2; Dn 9:25-26) is spiritual; that is, it is done by the Holy Spirit (Is 61:1; Lk 4:1, 18-19). That Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25368,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\nTitle derived from the Hebrew, mashiach<\/span>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (<\/em>mashach<\/span>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\nIsrael’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\nConcluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\nMessiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\nJewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\nAmong Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\nWhile later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\nWhile the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\nThe nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\nIt is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\nThe writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\nPsalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\nJeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\nWhile the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\nMessiah in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\nThe Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\nFamily genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\nThe messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:2","content_ro":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","content_en":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","summary_en":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76413,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:2","content_ro":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","content_en":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","summary_en":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104039,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:2","content_ro":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","content_en":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","summary_en":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131665,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:2","content_ro":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","content_en":"2:2<\/strong> The kings<\/em> hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one<\/em> (or his messiah<\/em>); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills the role in which these earlier kings failed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","summary_en":"2:2 The kings hate the Lord’s established order in the world, so they desire to be independent of him (see 36:4). They scheme about dominating the Lord’s people (31:13; see 83:1-4). Their goal is to subvert the Lord’s rule in the world by overthrowing his anointed one (or his messiah); the Lord chose the kings of David’s dynasty to establish his kingdom throughout the earth. The New Testament confirms that Jesus, the appointed and anointed Son of God (Acts 4:26; 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), fulfills...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":5466,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bondage Bond","title_en":"Bondage Bond","content_ro":"<h3>BOND, BONDAGE<\/h3>\nAnything that fastens or restrains; subjection or slavery. The basic concept in Hebrew and Greek words translated “bond” or “bondage” is “loss of freedom.” The concept connotes servitude to another. The OT uses several words for bondage to describe the period of Israelite servitude in Egypt as well as the Babylonian captivity and Persian domination. Some English versions use the word “bond” to denote a state of individual servitude, such as the conditions of indenture permitted under the laws of Moses (Lv 25:39-44, kjv<\/span>). The archaic term “bondmaid” is used to denote a concubine or secondary wife. The concept is used metaphorically to describe the control that God exercises over the nations of the world (Ps 2:3).<\/p>\nIn the NT the bondage metaphor has positive and negative aspects. Negatively, it indicates spiritual subjection to sin or Satan (Heb 2:14-15; 2 Pt 2:19), to the flesh (Rom 8:12-14), or to the Law (Gal 2:4; 5:1). Human beings are enslaved when forces hostile to their well-being control their actions. The term is also used to picture the subjugation of creation to physical decay (Rom 8:21), which itself is the result of human sin.<\/p>\nThe positive aspect draws upon the broader use of bondage in the Bible to denote servanthood, especially service to God as an obligation or vow (Nm 30:2-15; Ez 20:37). The term describes the necessity and value of suffering (Heb 10:34; 13:3). Paul especially uses it in a double sense (calling himself a “prisoner of Christ”) to associate his physical bonds with his spiritual bondage to Christ (Eph 3:1; Phil 1:7-14; 2 Tm 1:8; 2:9; Phlm 1:9-10, 13).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BOND, BONDAGE<\/h3>\nAnything that fastens or restrains; subjection or slavery. The basic concept in Hebrew and Greek words translated “bond” or “bondage” is “loss of freedom.” The concept connotes servitude to another. The OT uses several words for bondage to describe the period of Israelite servitude in Egypt as well as the Babylonian captivity and Persian domination. Some English versions use the word “bond” to denote a state of individual servitude, such as the conditions of indenture permitted under the laws of Moses (Lv 25:39-44, kjv<\/span>). The archaic term “bondmaid” is used to denote a concubine or secondary wife. The concept is used metaphorically to describe the control that God exercises over the nations of the world (Ps 2:3).<\/p>\nIn the NT the bondage metaphor has positive and negative aspects. Negatively, it indicates spiritual subjection to sin or Satan (Heb 2:14-15; 2 Pt 2:19), to the flesh (Rom 8:12-14), or to the Law (Gal 2:4; 5:1). Human beings are enslaved when forces hostile to their well-being control their actions. The term is also used to picture the subjugation of creation to physical decay (Rom 8:21), which itself is the result of human sin.<\/p>\nThe positive aspect draws upon the broader use of bondage in the Bible to denote servanthood, especially service to God as an obligation or vow (Nm 30:2-15; Ez 20:37). The term describes the necessity and value of suffering (Heb 10:34; 13:3). Paul especially uses it in a double sense (calling himself a “prisoner of Christ”) to associate his physical bonds with his spiritual bondage to Christ (Eph 3:1; Phil 1:7-14; 2 Tm 1:8; 2:9; Phlm 1:9-10, 13).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BOND, BONDAGE Anything that fastens or restrains; subjection or slavery. The basic concept in Hebrew and Greek words translated “bond” or “bondage” is “loss of freedom.” The concept connotes servitude to another. The OT uses several words for bondage to describe the period of Israelite servitude in Egypt as well as the Babylonian captivity and Persian domination. Some English versions use the word “bond” to denote a state of individual servitude, such as the conditions of indenture permitted ...","summary_en":"BOND, BONDAGE Anything that fastens or restrains; subjection or slavery. The basic concept in Hebrew and Greek words translated “bond” or “bondage” is “loss of freedom.” The concept connotes servitude to another. The OT uses several words for bondage to describe the period of Israelite servitude in Egypt as well as the Babylonian captivity and Persian domination. Some English versions use the word “bond” to denote a state of individual servitude, such as the conditions of indenture permitted ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:3","content_ro":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","summary_en":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76414,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:3","content_ro":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","summary_en":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104040,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:3","content_ro":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","summary_en":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131666,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:3","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:3","content_ro":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"2:3<\/strong> break their chains:<\/em> These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","summary_en":"2:3 break their chains: These kings believe that acknowledging the true God and his chosen ruler will result in their enslavement (Isa 28:22; 52:2; cp. Lam 3:7; Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 7:22; Titus 1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":22643,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Laughter","title_en":"Laughter","content_ro":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\nExpression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\nLaughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\nLaughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAUGHTER<\/h3>\nExpression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; 7:3). Yet it is good to be able not to take certain things seriously. The well-prepared housewife “laughs with no fear of the future” (Prv 31:25). Job is promised that war and famine would be nothing to worry about (Jb 5:22; cf. Hb 1:9).<\/p>\nLaughter can be a negative, derisive thing. We can laugh at people and laugh them to scorn. This element comes very much to the fore in the OT. Job and Jeremiah complain of being laughingstocks (Jb 12:4; Jer 20:7). The nation complains that their enemies laugh at their distress (Ps 80:6; cf. 2 Chr 30:10). Sometimes there is every justification. In Psalm 52:6 the righteous are promised the last laugh, at the expense of the wicked unbeliever who thinks that he can leave God out of his life. In Proverbs 1:26, personified Wisdom warns that she will laugh at the calamity of those who refuse to take her advice: it will serve them right. In this sense laughter is ascribed to God three times in the Psalter. He laughs at the nations plotting against his anointed King (Ps 2:4). He laughs at wicked people, knowing they are heading for disaster (37:13). He is invited to laugh at the psalmist’s enemies (59:8). This divine laughter is a way of expressing that the truth will eventually prevail.<\/p>\nLaughter has a special place in the Abraham narratives. It is used in connection with the name of his son Isaac, which means “He laughs” or “May [God] smile [upon him].” Hebrew stories like to bring out the meaning of words, and so the human reaction to the birth of Isaac, the channel of God’s patriarchal promises, is described in terms of laughter. It is theologically important because it tends to be contrasted with faith. In Genesis 17:17 laughter is Abraham’s incredulous response to God’s unrealistic promise of a son, in view of Sarah’s elderliness. In Genesis 18:12 Sarah cannot smother her laughter as she eavesdrops—it seems so absurd that she will become pregnant in her 90s. But finally in Genesis 21:6, when the impossible becomes true, Sarah’s laughter is a mark of God-given joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","summary_en":"LAUGHTER Expression of a variey of emotions. Laughter can express overjoyed happiness when circumstances change for the better, as for the Jews in returning from exile (Ps 126:2). Such joy is sincerely but facilely offered to Job by one of his comforters (Jb 8:21). Laughter can be good-humored and friendly, to encourage others (29:24). There is “a time to cry and a time to laugh” (Eccl 3:4), but the Preacher had his doubts: life is no laughing matter, and sorrow can be a better teacher (2:2; ...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30792,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Poetry","title_en":"Biblical Poetry","content_ro":"<h3>POETRY, Biblical<\/span><\/h3>\nPoetic language in Scripture.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains all that we know of the poetry of Israel, and what we have occupies an important place in that literature. It was presumably well known throughout the ancient Near East, for its fame had spread even to Babylon (Ps 137:3). Much of the OT is poetic in spirit and structure—a feature of the prophetic writings as well as the poetic literature. In the former are found passages of elevated poetry, studded with brilliant gems of imagery. The movement is rhythmical, with meter, parallelism, and strophic arrangement, as in the poetry books.<\/p>\nThe English Revised Version of the Bible (1881) first rendered a great service to English readers by printing OT poetry in parallel lines. Where this is not done in the prophetic literature, the poetic quality of these books is obscured. Note that besides the OT books recognized as poetry—the Psalms, Job, Lamentations, Song of Songs, and Proverbs—Ecclesiastes and the Prophets consist of prose and poetry. The historical books also contain fine examples of poetry.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew language was an ideal instrument for expressing poetic speech. Its simplicity of form combined intensity of feeling and pictorial power and allowed great play of imagination. Figures, metaphors, and hyperboles are extremely common. In its powerful imagery the genius of Hebrew poetry comes to its finest expression.<\/p>\nThe normal unit of Hebrew verse is the couplet of two parallel lines. But this is not the only grouping of lines in Hebrew poetry. Units of three (Pss 1:1; 5:11; 45:1-2), four (Pss 1:3; 55:21; Prv 27:15-16), five (Ps 6:6-7; Prv 24:23-25), six (Ps 99:1-3; Prv 30:21-23), and even larger combinations of parallel lines occur.<\/p>\nAs far as can be determined, meter is absent from biblical poetry. Certainly there is little concern for the careful meter that marks classic Greek and Latin, as well as much of English, poetry. The only exception is found in wailing songs or laments (Jer 9:18-20; Lam 1–4). This is called the lamentation meter, where the verse is in two parts. Rhyme also is so rare as to be almost nonexistent.<\/p>\nOn the other hand, Hebrew poetry is rhythmical—one of its distinguishing features. Its rhythm recurs with stressed and unstressed syllables in relatively regular succession. There are usually three or four accents or beats to a line, but the rhythmic unit is not uniform. Rhythm in Hebrew poetry, however, is not confined to the balance of accents or beats in a line. The meaning of the words and their position in the line are also significant—a feature called parallelism. This distinguishing characteristic was first clearly recognized by Dr. Robert Lowth, who in 1753 developed the principle of parallelism.<\/p>\nHe distinguished three types. The first is synonymous parallelism,<\/em> where the thought expressed in the first part of the verse is repeated in the second part, in different but equivalent terms (Pss 2:4; 19:1; 36:1-2; 103:11-12; Prv 3:13-18). The second is antithetic parallelism,<\/em> where the thought in the first part of the verse is contrasted with its opposite in the second (Ps 1:6; Prv 10:1-4, 16-18; 13:9). The third is synthetic parallelism,<\/em> where the idea expressed in the first line of a verse is developed and completed in the following lines (Pss 1:1; 3:5-6; 18:8-10; Prv 26:3). There are more complicated forms of parallelism, but these three are the most common.<\/p>\nAnother characteristic of biblical poetry is the use of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Psalms in which verses are linked together by this means are called acrostic. Today, an acrostic is formed by taking a name and beginning the successive lines of the short poem with the letters that make up the name. The Hebrews took only the alphabet and arranged the lines of the poem according to the succession of the letters.<\/p>\nEach line of a psalm may begin with a different letter, as in Psalm 25. Or each of the stanzas may begin with the same letter until all 22 letters of the alphabet are exhausted, as in Psalm 119. However, this psalm, which is the most conspicuous example of a Hebrew acrostic poem, is quite complicated in its arrangement. Not only does each stanza begin with a letter, but each of the eight lines of every stanza begins with the same letter, so that eight alphabetic arrangements move through the psalm in parallel lines. Other elaborate acrostics are Psalms 9, 10, 34, 37, 111, 112, and 145.<\/p>\nThe first four chapters of Lamentations also follow an acrostic arrangement. This example of acrostic arrangement is less noticeable to the English reader because the names of the Hebrew letters do not mark the beginning of the stanzas. In Lamentations 3 each letter of the alphabet begins three successive lines numbered as verses. Another acrostic occurs in Proverbs 31:10-31. It is an alphabetic description of the virtuous woman.<\/p>\nAnother poetic device giving unity to a poem and marking its divisions is the refrain. Psalm 136 is an outstanding example of this arrangement. The refrain is “His faithful love endures forever” and is used to conclude every verse.<\/p>\nThe meter of Hebraic poetry is dependent on accentuation; the unit is the couplet, in which the members may be of equal or varying length. Couplets are often arranged into strophes. The fundamental category of Hebrew poetry is the song or lyric. The song was accompanied by music (Gn 31:27; Ex 15:20; 1 Chr 25:6; Is 23:16; 30:29; Am 6:5) and could be associated with dance (Ex 15:20-21).<\/p>\nSome complete poems in the OT are embedded in the narrative books and represent various types of Hebrew poems. The first recorded poem in the Bible is a battle song (Gn 4:23-24). Other famous examples of this type are the Song of Moses (Ex 15:1-18) and the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:1-31). Then there is the Taunt Song (Nm 21:27-30), the Song of the Well (vv 17-18), and songs of blessing. Of this latter type, well-known examples are the Blessing of Jacob (Gn 49:1-27), the Blessing of Moses (Dt 33:2-29), and the four Blessings of Balaam (Nm 23:7-10; 23:18-24; 24:3-9; 24:15-24). There are also laments for the dead (2 Sm 1:19-27) and didactic poems that warn against improvidence (Prv 6:6-11) and drunkenness (23:29-35). Common throughout all of these various types of poems is religious emotion and fervor. The songs of Moses and Deborah praise God as the giver of victory.<\/p>\nMost poems of distinctively religious fervor characterize the worship of the sanctuary. The psalms are religious poems sung with musical accompaniment. Many are private prayers, while others were composed for public worship, especially hymns of thanksgiving sung at the tabernacle or temple. It is in the Psalter that the soaring spirit of Hebrew poetry rises to a level never achieved by Israel’s pagan neighbors; the Hebrews worshiped God in spirit and in truth, and as they did so, they were giving expression to a personal experience of the living God in their soul.<\/p>\nThe internal qualities of Hebrew poetry are in part influenced by the age, social conditions, and environment in which the writers lived. Although the OT is of divine authorship, it also comes within the scope of literature and should be appreciated as such. Though the Holy Spirit inspired the message of the Hebrew writers, their individual writing styles remain clearly evident. Using simple and vivid diction, figures of speech, and literary devices, each poet expressed a wealth of religious thought, experience, and emotion; simile, metaphor, allegory, hyperbole, personification, irony, and wordplay all variously enhanced each writer’s pattern of thinking. Hebrew poetry is the expression of the poet’s human spirit, and it is the literature of revelation—the Word of God to humankind.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT has a limited number of poetical passages. Probably the NT contains less poetry than the OT (relatively speaking) because the early Christians found the OT Psalter (in the Hebrew and LXX) adequate for their devotional purposes. All the writers of the NT were Jews, except Luke. He has given us some memorable poems: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (vv 68-79), and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). Interestingly, these poems are strongly Hebraic in form, character, and content. Matthew has given us the poetic Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-12). These Beatitudes have the parallelism that is common in OT poetry—specifically, synthetic parallelism (where the second line of each verse completes the meaning of the first line). There is also a definite rhythmic quality in Matthew 11:28-30. John’s Prologue to his Gospel of John (1:1-18) is a fine example of Hellenistic poetry.<\/p>\nThe NT Epistles contain a number of poetic passages, especially in the doxologies (see, for example, Rom 16:25-27; Jude 1:24-25). Other sections are distinctly poetry and\/or early Christian hymns. These include Philippians 2:6-11 (“The Humility of Christ” hymn\/ poem); Colossians 1:15-20 (“The Preeminence of Christ” hymn\/poem); and 1 Timothy 3:16 (“The Incarnation” hymn\/poem). The writer to Hebrews also produced a noteworthy poetic prologue (1:1-3). Other sections of Paul’s writings display poetic language, where rhythm and exalted diction are prominent (see, for example, 1 Cor 13; 15:54-57).<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation also contains a number of poems of praise as well as hymns (see Rv 5:9-10, 12-13; 7:12; 11:17-18; 15:3-4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Ecclesiastes, Book of; Job, Book of; Lamentations, Book of; Music; Proverbs, Book of; Psalms, Book of; Song of Solomon; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POETRY, Biblical<\/span><\/h3>\nPoetic language in Scripture.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe OT contains all that we know of the poetry of Israel, and what we have occupies an important place in that literature. It was presumably well known throughout the ancient Near East, for its fame had spread even to Babylon (Ps 137:3). Much of the OT is poetic in spirit and structure—a feature of the prophetic writings as well as the poetic literature. In the former are found passages of elevated poetry, studded with brilliant gems of imagery. The movement is rhythmical, with meter, parallelism, and strophic arrangement, as in the poetry books.<\/p>\nThe English Revised Version of the Bible (1881) first rendered a great service to English readers by printing OT poetry in parallel lines. Where this is not done in the prophetic literature, the poetic quality of these books is obscured. Note that besides the OT books recognized as poetry—the Psalms, Job, Lamentations, Song of Songs, and Proverbs—Ecclesiastes and the Prophets consist of prose and poetry. The historical books also contain fine examples of poetry.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew language was an ideal instrument for expressing poetic speech. Its simplicity of form combined intensity of feeling and pictorial power and allowed great play of imagination. Figures, metaphors, and hyperboles are extremely common. In its powerful imagery the genius of Hebrew poetry comes to its finest expression.<\/p>\nThe normal unit of Hebrew verse is the couplet of two parallel lines. But this is not the only grouping of lines in Hebrew poetry. Units of three (Pss 1:1; 5:11; 45:1-2), four (Pss 1:3; 55:21; Prv 27:15-16), five (Ps 6:6-7; Prv 24:23-25), six (Ps 99:1-3; Prv 30:21-23), and even larger combinations of parallel lines occur.<\/p>\nAs far as can be determined, meter is absent from biblical poetry. Certainly there is little concern for the careful meter that marks classic Greek and Latin, as well as much of English, poetry. The only exception is found in wailing songs or laments (Jer 9:18-20; Lam 1–4). This is called the lamentation meter, where the verse is in two parts. Rhyme also is so rare as to be almost nonexistent.<\/p>\nOn the other hand, Hebrew poetry is rhythmical—one of its distinguishing features. Its rhythm recurs with stressed and unstressed syllables in relatively regular succession. There are usually three or four accents or beats to a line, but the rhythmic unit is not uniform. Rhythm in Hebrew poetry, however, is not confined to the balance of accents or beats in a line. The meaning of the words and their position in the line are also significant—a feature called parallelism. This distinguishing characteristic was first clearly recognized by Dr. Robert Lowth, who in 1753 developed the principle of parallelism.<\/p>\nHe distinguished three types. The first is synonymous parallelism,<\/em> where the thought expressed in the first part of the verse is repeated in the second part, in different but equivalent terms (Pss 2:4; 19:1; 36:1-2; 103:11-12; Prv 3:13-18). The second is antithetic parallelism,<\/em> where the thought in the first part of the verse is contrasted with its opposite in the second (Ps 1:6; Prv 10:1-4, 16-18; 13:9). The third is synthetic parallelism,<\/em> where the idea expressed in the first line of a verse is developed and completed in the following lines (Pss 1:1; 3:5-6; 18:8-10; Prv 26:3). There are more complicated forms of parallelism, but these three are the most common.<\/p>\nAnother characteristic of biblical poetry is the use of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Psalms in which verses are linked together by this means are called acrostic. Today, an acrostic is formed by taking a name and beginning the successive lines of the short poem with the letters that make up the name. The Hebrews took only the alphabet and arranged the lines of the poem according to the succession of the letters.<\/p>\nEach line of a psalm may begin with a different letter, as in Psalm 25. Or each of the stanzas may begin with the same letter until all 22 letters of the alphabet are exhausted, as in Psalm 119. However, this psalm, which is the most conspicuous example of a Hebrew acrostic poem, is quite complicated in its arrangement. Not only does each stanza begin with a letter, but each of the eight lines of every stanza begins with the same letter, so that eight alphabetic arrangements move through the psalm in parallel lines. Other elaborate acrostics are Psalms 9, 10, 34, 37, 111, 112, and 145.<\/p>\nThe first four chapters of Lamentations also follow an acrostic arrangement. This example of acrostic arrangement is less noticeable to the English reader because the names of the Hebrew letters do not mark the beginning of the stanzas. In Lamentations 3 each letter of the alphabet begins three successive lines numbered as verses. Another acrostic occurs in Proverbs 31:10-31. It is an alphabetic description of the virtuous woman.<\/p>\nAnother poetic device giving unity to a poem and marking its divisions is the refrain. Psalm 136 is an outstanding example of this arrangement. The refrain is “His faithful love endures forever” and is used to conclude every verse.<\/p>\nThe meter of Hebraic poetry is dependent on accentuation; the unit is the couplet, in which the members may be of equal or varying length. Couplets are often arranged into strophes. The fundamental category of Hebrew poetry is the song or lyric. The song was accompanied by music (Gn 31:27; Ex 15:20; 1 Chr 25:6; Is 23:16; 30:29; Am 6:5) and could be associated with dance (Ex 15:20-21).<\/p>\nSome complete poems in the OT are embedded in the narrative books and represent various types of Hebrew poems. The first recorded poem in the Bible is a battle song (Gn 4:23-24). Other famous examples of this type are the Song of Moses (Ex 15:1-18) and the Song of Deborah (Jgs 5:1-31). Then there is the Taunt Song (Nm 21:27-30), the Song of the Well (vv 17-18), and songs of blessing. Of this latter type, well-known examples are the Blessing of Jacob (Gn 49:1-27), the Blessing of Moses (Dt 33:2-29), and the four Blessings of Balaam (Nm 23:7-10; 23:18-24; 24:3-9; 24:15-24). There are also laments for the dead (2 Sm 1:19-27) and didactic poems that warn against improvidence (Prv 6:6-11) and drunkenness (23:29-35). Common throughout all of these various types of poems is religious emotion and fervor. The songs of Moses and Deborah praise God as the giver of victory.<\/p>\nMost poems of distinctively religious fervor characterize the worship of the sanctuary. The psalms are religious poems sung with musical accompaniment. Many are private prayers, while others were composed for public worship, especially hymns of thanksgiving sung at the tabernacle or temple. It is in the Psalter that the soaring spirit of Hebrew poetry rises to a level never achieved by Israel’s pagan neighbors; the Hebrews worshiped God in spirit and in truth, and as they did so, they were giving expression to a personal experience of the living God in their soul.<\/p>\nThe internal qualities of Hebrew poetry are in part influenced by the age, social conditions, and environment in which the writers lived. Although the OT is of divine authorship, it also comes within the scope of literature and should be appreciated as such. Though the Holy Spirit inspired the message of the Hebrew writers, their individual writing styles remain clearly evident. Using simple and vivid diction, figures of speech, and literary devices, each poet expressed a wealth of religious thought, experience, and emotion; simile, metaphor, allegory, hyperbole, personification, irony, and wordplay all variously enhanced each writer’s pattern of thinking. Hebrew poetry is the expression of the poet’s human spirit, and it is the literature of revelation—the Word of God to humankind.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT has a limited number of poetical passages. Probably the NT contains less poetry than the OT (relatively speaking) because the early Christians found the OT Psalter (in the Hebrew and LXX) adequate for their devotional purposes. All the writers of the NT were Jews, except Luke. He has given us some memorable poems: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (vv 68-79), and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). Interestingly, these poems are strongly Hebraic in form, character, and content. Matthew has given us the poetic Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-12). These Beatitudes have the parallelism that is common in OT poetry—specifically, synthetic parallelism (where the second line of each verse completes the meaning of the first line). There is also a definite rhythmic quality in Matthew 11:28-30. John’s Prologue to his Gospel of John (1:1-18) is a fine example of Hellenistic poetry.<\/p>\nThe NT Epistles contain a number of poetic passages, especially in the doxologies (see, for example, Rom 16:25-27; Jude 1:24-25). Other sections are distinctly poetry and\/or early Christian hymns. These include Philippians 2:6-11 (“The Humility of Christ” hymn\/ poem); Colossians 1:15-20 (“The Preeminence of Christ” hymn\/poem); and 1 Timothy 3:16 (“The Incarnation” hymn\/poem). The writer to Hebrews also produced a noteworthy poetic prologue (1:1-3). Other sections of Paul’s writings display poetic language, where rhythm and exalted diction are prominent (see, for example, 1 Cor 13; 15:54-57).<\/p>\nThe book of Revelation also contains a number of poems of praise as well as hymns (see Rv 5:9-10, 12-13; 7:12; 11:17-18; 15:3-4).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Ecclesiastes, Book of; Job, Book of; Lamentations, Book of; Music; Proverbs, Book of; Psalms, Book of; Song of Solomon; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POETRY, Biblical Poetic language in Scripture. In the Old Testament The OT contains all that we know of the poetry of Israel, and what we have occupies an important place in that literature. It was presumably well known throughout the ancient Near East, for its fame had spread even to Babylon (Ps 137:3). Much of the OT is poetic in spirit and structure—a feature of the prophetic writings as well as the poetic literature. In the former are found passages of elevated poetry, studded with brilli...","summary_en":"POETRY, Biblical Poetic language in Scripture. In the Old Testament The OT contains all that we know of the poetry of Israel, and what we have occupies an important place in that literature. It was presumably well known throughout the ancient Near East, for its fame had spread even to Babylon (Ps 137:3). Much of the OT is poetic in spirit and structure—a feature of the prophetic writings as well as the poetic literature. In the former are found passages of elevated poetry, studded with brilli...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48789,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","summary_en":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48790,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","content_en":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","summary_en":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76415,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","summary_en":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76416,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","content_en":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","summary_en":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104041,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","summary_en":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104042,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","content_en":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","summary_en":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131667,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","content_en":"2:4-6<\/strong> The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","summary_en":"2:4-6 The Lord finds the human threat insignificant. He provided a solution long before their rebellion. He will end their agitation through the appointment of a human agent, a descendant of David’s line who will rule the nations.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131668,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:4","content_ro":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","content_en":"2:4<\/strong> rules in heaven:<\/em> The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs<\/em> at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","summary_en":"2:4 rules in heaven: The Lord’s place in the universe is so certain that he scoffs at humans who boast that they can rebel against his power and authority (see 37:13; 59:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":63064,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90690,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118316,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145942,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":21762,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\nThe word melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew melek<\/span>.<\/em> The NT basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nThe phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\nKingship in Israel<\/p>\nGod chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\nAt the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\nThe Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\nThe qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\nThe Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\nThe crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\nSamuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\nDavid’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\nThe outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\nThe accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\nThe Messiah-King<\/p>\nThe descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\nIn the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\nJesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\nI command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\nThen Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\nThe word melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew melek<\/span>.<\/em> The NT basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\nThe phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\nKingship in Israel<\/p>\nGod chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\nAt the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\nThe Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\nThe qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\nThe Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\nThe crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\nSamuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\nDavid’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\nThe outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\nThe accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\nThe Messiah-King<\/p>\nThe descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\nIn the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\nJesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\nI command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\nThen Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39402,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\nThe Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\nGeographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\nThe first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\nChanges in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\nThe word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\nTheological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\nMany theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\nThough the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\nAn adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\nBecause Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nThe NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\nThe Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\nGeographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\nThe first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\nChanges in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\nThe word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\nTheological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\nMany theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\nThough the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\nAn adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\nBecause Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nThe NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","summary_en":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48791,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:6","content_ro":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","content_en":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","summary_en":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76417,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:6","content_ro":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","content_en":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","summary_en":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104043,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:6","content_ro":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","content_en":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","summary_en":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131669,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:6","content_ro":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","content_en":"2:6<\/strong> my chosen king:<\/em> The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","summary_en":"2:6 my chosen king: The Lord establishes his anointed ruler.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62920,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90546,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118172,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145798,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\nZion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\nZion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\nZion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\nThe New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":2147,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Annunciation*","title_en":"Annunciation*","content_ro":"<h3>ANNUNCIATION*<\/h3>\nThe angel Gabriel’s announcement to Mary that she would bear a son by the Holy Spirit (Lk 1:26-38).<\/p>\nIn spite of the misunderstanding and hardship Mary would have to endure because of her premarital pregnancy, Gabriel greeted her as one “highly favored” or “richly blessed” (Lk 1:28). With fear characteristic of a human being confronted by a heavenly being, Mary “considered . . . what sort of greeting this might be” (Lk 1:29, rsv<\/span>). Reassuring her, Gabriel said the Lord had chosen her to bring forth a son to be named Jesus.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the Greek form of the Hebrew name “Joshua,” which means “the Lord is salvation.” Matthew described an angel’s appearance to Joseph also to announce that Mary was pregnant with a child conceived by the Holy Spirit, who would be called Jesus, “for he will save his people from their sins” (Mt 1:18-21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nUsing figures of speech drawn from the OT, Gabriel prophesied concerning the child that Mary would bear (Lk 1:32-33). Like John the Baptist, Jesus would be great, but Jesus’ greatness would be of a different kind, for John was to be “great in the sight of the Lord” (Lk 1:15, nasb<\/span>), but Jesus would be great and be “called the Son of the Most High” (Lk 1:32, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJesus would be given the throne of his father David (Lk 1:32). He would receive the sovereignty promised in the OT to the Messiah-King of David’s line, but unlike David, Jesus would reign forever (2 Sm 7:12-16; Pss 2:7; 89:26-29).<\/p>\nMary’s question, “How can this be, since I have no husband?” (Lk 1:34, rsv<\/span>) did not express doubt, but curiosity as to the manner in which the event should take place. Gabriel explained that “the power of the Most High,” the Holy Spirit, would “overshadow” Mary, and her child would be conceived by God’s power, like no child before it. Gabriel’s observation to Mary, “For with God nothing will be impossible” echoes the Lord’s word to Sarah when he announced Isaac’s birth (Gn 18:10-14). Because Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, he would be called “holy” and would be recognized as “the Son of God” (Lk 1:35, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIt required courage for Mary to reply to Gabriel, “I am the Lord’s servant, and I am willing to accept whatever he wants” (Lk 1:38, nlt<\/span>). As a handmaid, or slave, Mary could not but do the will of her master. However, as an unmarried pregnant woman, she faced the possibility of disgrace (Mt 1:19) and even the death penalty (Dt 22:20-24; see Jn 8:3-5). Still Mary realized that because of the mighty thing God would do in her, “generation after generation will call me blessed” (Lk 1:48, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSince December 25 is celebrated as the traditional date of Christ’s birth, liturgical churches celebrate the Feast of the Annunciation (Incarnation) nine months earlier, on March 25.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANNUNCIATION*<\/h3>\nThe angel Gabriel’s announcement to Mary that she would bear a son by the Holy Spirit (Lk 1:26-38).<\/p>\nIn spite of the misunderstanding and hardship Mary would have to endure because of her premarital pregnancy, Gabriel greeted her as one “highly favored” or “richly blessed” (Lk 1:28). With fear characteristic of a human being confronted by a heavenly being, Mary “considered . . . what sort of greeting this might be” (Lk 1:29, rsv<\/span>). Reassuring her, Gabriel said the Lord had chosen her to bring forth a son to be named Jesus.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the Greek form of the Hebrew name “Joshua,” which means “the Lord is salvation.” Matthew described an angel’s appearance to Joseph also to announce that Mary was pregnant with a child conceived by the Holy Spirit, who would be called Jesus, “for he will save his people from their sins” (Mt 1:18-21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nUsing figures of speech drawn from the OT, Gabriel prophesied concerning the child that Mary would bear (Lk 1:32-33). Like John the Baptist, Jesus would be great, but Jesus’ greatness would be of a different kind, for John was to be “great in the sight of the Lord” (Lk 1:15, nasb<\/span>), but Jesus would be great and be “called the Son of the Most High” (Lk 1:32, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJesus would be given the throne of his father David (Lk 1:32). He would receive the sovereignty promised in the OT to the Messiah-King of David’s line, but unlike David, Jesus would reign forever (2 Sm 7:12-16; Pss 2:7; 89:26-29).<\/p>\nMary’s question, “How can this be, since I have no husband?” (Lk 1:34, rsv<\/span>) did not express doubt, but curiosity as to the manner in which the event should take place. Gabriel explained that “the power of the Most High,” the Holy Spirit, would “overshadow” Mary, and her child would be conceived by God’s power, like no child before it. Gabriel’s observation to Mary, “For with God nothing will be impossible” echoes the Lord’s word to Sarah when he announced Isaac’s birth (Gn 18:10-14). Because Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, he would be called “holy” and would be recognized as “the Son of God” (Lk 1:35, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIt required courage for Mary to reply to Gabriel, “I am the Lord’s servant, and I am willing to accept whatever he wants” (Lk 1:38, nlt<\/span>). As a handmaid, or slave, Mary could not but do the will of her master. However, as an unmarried pregnant woman, she faced the possibility of disgrace (Mt 1:19) and even the death penalty (Dt 22:20-24; see Jn 8:3-5). Still Mary realized that because of the mighty thing God would do in her, “generation after generation will call me blessed” (Lk 1:48, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nSince December 25 is celebrated as the traditional date of Christ’s birth, liturgical churches celebrate the Feast of the Annunciation (Incarnation) nine months earlier, on March 25.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Virgin Birth of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANNUNCIATION* The angel Gabriel’s announcement to Mary that she would bear a son by the Holy Spirit (Lk 1:26-38). In spite of the misunderstanding and hardship Mary would have to endure because of her premarital pregnancy, Gabriel greeted her as one “highly favored” or “richly blessed” (Lk 1:28). With fear characteristic of a human being confronted by a heavenly being, Mary “considered . . . what sort of greeting this might be” (Lk 1:29, rsv). Reassuring her, Gabriel said the Lord had chosen ...","summary_en":"ANNUNCIATION* The angel Gabriel’s announcement to Mary that she would bear a son by the Holy Spirit (Lk 1:26-38). In spite of the misunderstanding and hardship Mary would have to endure because of her premarital pregnancy, Gabriel greeted her as one “highly favored” or “richly blessed” (Lk 1:28). With fear characteristic of a human being confronted by a heavenly being, Mary “considered . . . what sort of greeting this might be” (Lk 1:29, rsv). Reassuring her, Gabriel said the Lord had chosen ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3679,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\nTerm generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nThe Baptism of John<\/p>\nJohn preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\nJohn’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\nThe Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\nThis event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\nJesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\nHere we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\nBaptism in the Early Church<\/p>\nActs 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\nThe Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\nPaul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\nThere is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\nBaptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","summary_en":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3736,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Jesus*, Baptism","title_en":"of Jesus*, Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM OF JESUS*<\/h3>\nMajor event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial.<\/p>\nThe Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward God. For John, that meant repentance, confession of sins, and practicing righteousness. That being so, why was Jesus baptized? If Jesus was sinless, as the NT proclaims (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1 Pt 2:22), why did he submit to a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins? The Gospels provide the answers.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Mark<\/p>\nMark presents the baptism of Jesus as a necessary preparation for his period of temptation and ministry. At his baptism Jesus received the Father’s approval and the bestowal of the Holy Spirit (1:9-11). Mark’s focus on Jesus’ special relation to the Father, “You are my beloved Son, and I am fully pleased with you” (1:11, nlt<\/span>), brings together two important OT references. Jesus’ messiahship is presented in a radically new way, in which the ruling Messiah (Ps 2:7) is also the Suffering Servant of the Lord (Is 42:1). Popular Jewish belief expected a ruling Messiah who would establish the kingdom of God, not a Messiah who would suffer for the people. Mark intended to show that in Jesus alone had God’s appointed time for the fulfillment of his purpose come.<\/p>\nThe statement that the heavens opened at the baptism of Jesus (Mk 1:10) may proclaim the arrival of the “end times” (the time of fulfillment and the establishment of God’s kingdom). A then-current Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 64:1 held that in the last days God would open the heavens and come down to his people. In Jewish thought the rending of the heavens was also associated with hearing God’s voice and the bestowal of God’s Spirit.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Matthew<\/p>\nMatthew’s account of Jesus’ baptism has more detail than Mark’s. It begins by noting John’s reluctance to baptize Jesus (3:14). John was persuaded only after Jesus explained to him that the act was “fitting for us to fulfil all righteousness” (3:15, rsv<\/span>). Although the full meaning of those words is uncertain, they at least suggest that Jesus’ baptism was necessary to accomplish God’s will. In both the Old and New Testaments (Ps 98:2-3; Rom 1:17) God’s righteousness is seen in his salvation for his people. That is why the Messiah can be called “The Lord<\/span> Is Our Righteousness” (Jer 23:6; cf. Is 11:1-5). Jesus told John that his baptism was necessary to do God’s will in bringing about salvation for his people. Thus the Father’s declaration at Jesus’ baptism is presented in the form of a public announcement, emphasizing that Jesus was God’s anointed Servant about to begin his ministry as the bringer of the Lord’s salvation.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Luke<\/p>\nLuke passes over Jesus’ baptism quickly, placing it alongside the baptism of others who came to John (3:21-22). The context in Luke also sheds some light on the purpose of Jesus’ baptism. Luke, unlike Matthew, places the genealogy of Jesus after his baptism and just before his ministry begins. The parallel to Moses, whose genealogy occurs just before his primary work begins (Ex 6:14-25), seems more than coincidental. It is probably intended to illustrate Jesus’ role in bringing deliverance (salvation) to God’s people just as Moses did in the OT. At his baptism, by the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, Jesus was equipped to do the mission God had called him to do. Following his temptation (Lk 4:1-13), Jesus entered the synagogue and declared to the people that he had been anointed by the Spirit to proclaim good news (4:16-21). That anointing came at Jesus’ baptism (cf. Acts 10:37-38).<\/p>\nIn his Gospel account, Luke tried to identify Jesus with the common people—for example, in the birth story (with Jesus born in a stable and visited by lowly shepherds, Lk 2:8-20) and through placing the genealogy (stressing Jesus’ relation to all of humanity, 3:38) right after the baptism. Thus, Luke saw the baptism as Jesus’ first step in identifying himself with those he had come to save.<\/p>\nIn the OT the Messiah was always inseparable from the people he represented (see especially Jer 30:21 and Ez 45–46). Although the “servant” in Isaiah is sometimes viewed corporately (Is 44:1) and sometimes individually (53:3), he is always viewed as the representative of the people<\/em> to the Lord (49:5-26), as well as the servant of the Lord.<\/em><\/p>\nEvidently Luke, along with Mark and Matthew, was trying to show that Jesus, as the divine representative of the people, had identified himself with them in his baptism.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of John<\/p>\nThe fourth Gospel does not say that Jesus was baptized but does say that John the Baptist saw the Spirit descend upon Jesus (Jn 1:32-34). The account emphasizes that Jesus went to John during John’s preaching and baptizing ministry; John recognized that Jesus was the Christ, that God’s Spirit was upon him, and that he was the Son of God. John also recognized that Jesus, unlike himself, baptized with the Holy Spirit (1:29-36).<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist described Jesus as the “Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (1:29, nlt<\/span>). The closest OT parallel to that statement comes from a “servant of the Lord” passage (Is 53:6-7). It is possible that “Lamb of God” could be an alternate translation of the Aramaic term “servant of God.”<\/p>\nThe sense of Jesus as the one who bears the sins of the people is obviously in view in the fourth Gospel. That Jesus was the promised representative and deliverer of the people was understood by John the Baptist and conveyed by the Gospel writer.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn the four Gospels it is clear that the Holy Spirit came upon Jesus at his baptism to enable him to do the work of God. All four Gospel writers saw that Jesus had been anointed by God to accomplish his mission of bringing salvation to the people. Those ideas provide a key to understanding why Jesus was baptized. On that occasion at the beginning of his ministry, God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit to do his mediating work between God and the people. At his baptism Jesus was identified as the one who would bear the people’s sins; Jesus was baptized to identify himself with sinful people.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM OF JESUS*<\/h3>\nMajor event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial.<\/p>\nThe Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward God. For John, that meant repentance, confession of sins, and practicing righteousness. That being so, why was Jesus baptized? If Jesus was sinless, as the NT proclaims (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1 Pt 2:22), why did he submit to a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins? The Gospels provide the answers.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Mark<\/p>\nMark presents the baptism of Jesus as a necessary preparation for his period of temptation and ministry. At his baptism Jesus received the Father’s approval and the bestowal of the Holy Spirit (1:9-11). Mark’s focus on Jesus’ special relation to the Father, “You are my beloved Son, and I am fully pleased with you” (1:11, nlt<\/span>), brings together two important OT references. Jesus’ messiahship is presented in a radically new way, in which the ruling Messiah (Ps 2:7) is also the Suffering Servant of the Lord (Is 42:1). Popular Jewish belief expected a ruling Messiah who would establish the kingdom of God, not a Messiah who would suffer for the people. Mark intended to show that in Jesus alone had God’s appointed time for the fulfillment of his purpose come.<\/p>\nThe statement that the heavens opened at the baptism of Jesus (Mk 1:10) may proclaim the arrival of the “end times” (the time of fulfillment and the establishment of God’s kingdom). A then-current Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 64:1 held that in the last days God would open the heavens and come down to his people. In Jewish thought the rending of the heavens was also associated with hearing God’s voice and the bestowal of God’s Spirit.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Matthew<\/p>\nMatthew’s account of Jesus’ baptism has more detail than Mark’s. It begins by noting John’s reluctance to baptize Jesus (3:14). John was persuaded only after Jesus explained to him that the act was “fitting for us to fulfil all righteousness” (3:15, rsv<\/span>). Although the full meaning of those words is uncertain, they at least suggest that Jesus’ baptism was necessary to accomplish God’s will. In both the Old and New Testaments (Ps 98:2-3; Rom 1:17) God’s righteousness is seen in his salvation for his people. That is why the Messiah can be called “The Lord<\/span> Is Our Righteousness” (Jer 23:6; cf. Is 11:1-5). Jesus told John that his baptism was necessary to do God’s will in bringing about salvation for his people. Thus the Father’s declaration at Jesus’ baptism is presented in the form of a public announcement, emphasizing that Jesus was God’s anointed Servant about to begin his ministry as the bringer of the Lord’s salvation.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of Luke<\/p>\nLuke passes over Jesus’ baptism quickly, placing it alongside the baptism of others who came to John (3:21-22). The context in Luke also sheds some light on the purpose of Jesus’ baptism. Luke, unlike Matthew, places the genealogy of Jesus after his baptism and just before his ministry begins. The parallel to Moses, whose genealogy occurs just before his primary work begins (Ex 6:14-25), seems more than coincidental. It is probably intended to illustrate Jesus’ role in bringing deliverance (salvation) to God’s people just as Moses did in the OT. At his baptism, by the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, Jesus was equipped to do the mission God had called him to do. Following his temptation (Lk 4:1-13), Jesus entered the synagogue and declared to the people that he had been anointed by the Spirit to proclaim good news (4:16-21). That anointing came at Jesus’ baptism (cf. Acts 10:37-38).<\/p>\nIn his Gospel account, Luke tried to identify Jesus with the common people—for example, in the birth story (with Jesus born in a stable and visited by lowly shepherds, Lk 2:8-20) and through placing the genealogy (stressing Jesus’ relation to all of humanity, 3:38) right after the baptism. Thus, Luke saw the baptism as Jesus’ first step in identifying himself with those he had come to save.<\/p>\nIn the OT the Messiah was always inseparable from the people he represented (see especially Jer 30:21 and Ez 45–46). Although the “servant” in Isaiah is sometimes viewed corporately (Is 44:1) and sometimes individually (53:3), he is always viewed as the representative of the people<\/em> to the Lord (49:5-26), as well as the servant of the Lord.<\/em><\/p>\nEvidently Luke, along with Mark and Matthew, was trying to show that Jesus, as the divine representative of the people, had identified himself with them in his baptism.<\/p>\nThe Gospel of John<\/p>\nThe fourth Gospel does not say that Jesus was baptized but does say that John the Baptist saw the Spirit descend upon Jesus (Jn 1:32-34). The account emphasizes that Jesus went to John during John’s preaching and baptizing ministry; John recognized that Jesus was the Christ, that God’s Spirit was upon him, and that he was the Son of God. John also recognized that Jesus, unlike himself, baptized with the Holy Spirit (1:29-36).<\/p>\nJohn the Baptist described Jesus as the “Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (1:29, nlt<\/span>). The closest OT parallel to that statement comes from a “servant of the Lord” passage (Is 53:6-7). It is possible that “Lamb of God” could be an alternate translation of the Aramaic term “servant of God.”<\/p>\nThe sense of Jesus as the one who bears the sins of the people is obviously in view in the fourth Gospel. That Jesus was the promised representative and deliverer of the people was understood by John the Baptist and conveyed by the Gospel writer.<\/p>\nConclusion<\/p>\nIn the four Gospels it is clear that the Holy Spirit came upon Jesus at his baptism to enable him to do the work of God. All four Gospel writers saw that Jesus had been anointed by God to accomplish his mission of bringing salvation to the people. Those ideas provide a key to understanding why Jesus was baptized. On that occasion at the beginning of his ministry, God anointed Jesus with the Holy Spirit to do his mediating work between God and the people. At his baptism Jesus was identified as the one who would bear the people’s sins; Jesus was baptized to identify himself with sinful people.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM OF JESUS* Major event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial. The Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward...","summary_en":"BAPTISM OF JESUS* Major event in Jesus’ life, which marked the beginning of his ministry. The fact that John the Baptist baptized Jesus is disputed by very few scholars today, but the purpose and significance of Jesus’ baptism remain controversial. The Gospel accounts agree that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance (Mt 3:6-10; Mk 1:4-5; Lk 3:3-14). He proclaimed that the kingdom of heaven was at hand and that God’s people should prepare for the Lord’s coming by a renewal of faith toward...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14316,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\nGod’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\nIn the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\nIn the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (<\/em>onoma<\/span>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\nWith regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\nThe Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\nThe name ’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term ’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be ’ul<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition ’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word ’alim<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. ’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). ’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that ’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of ’El<\/span>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of ’Eloah<\/span>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\nThe plural form, ’Elohim<\/span>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning ’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name ’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God (<\/em>’Elohim<\/span>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which ’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\nSome scholars point to the use of ’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be ’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, ’<\/span>Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\nThe name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [’<\/span>Eloah<\/span>], but the Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\nAnother closely related name is ’Elah<\/span>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think ’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of ’Eloah<\/span>.<\/em> Its root is said to be ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as ’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\nThree other names of God include the term ’El<\/span>:<\/em><\/p>\n’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads ’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span>.<\/em> It is believed that the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb ‘alah<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term ‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form (<\/em>Shaddai<\/span>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term Shaddai<\/span>.<\/em> Some have begun with shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of shad<\/span> (<\/em>shadah<\/span>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which ’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between shadad<\/span> and Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as ’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates ’El Shaddai<\/span> as Pantokrator<\/span>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term ‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. ‘Olam<\/span>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, ‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of ’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. ’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with ’Elohim<\/span>.<\/em> Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as Yah<\/span> and Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\nThe exact meaning of the name Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, hawah<\/span>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the qal<\/span> or hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the hiphil<\/span> form read Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\nTranslators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as kurios<\/span>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered Yahweh<\/span> as “Lord<\/span>.” But ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The kjv<\/span>, for example, translates Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and ’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use Yahweh<\/span> (see jb<\/span> and njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either ’Elohim<\/span> or ’Adonai<\/span> for Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of ’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\nThe interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as ’<\/span>El Shaddai<\/span>,<\/em> but by my name Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> They knew him as ’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\nThis name Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\nIn view of the richness of the name Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb saba<\/span>’<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\nThe compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\nSeveral other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\nYahweh-Nissi<\/span> (nissi<\/span>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rapha<\/span> (rapha’<\/span>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rohi<\/span> (ro‘i<\/span>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\nYahweh-Jireh<\/span> (yir’eh<\/span>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (shalom<\/span>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term tsadaq<\/span>,<\/em> “righteousness.” Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\nThe word ’adan<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun ’adon<\/span>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. ’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\nIn the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example ’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> ’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> and ’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and ’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\nThe personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\nThe term ’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\nIn the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\nIsaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\nThe term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\nThe messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\nThe name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\nThe Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\nTheos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names ’El<\/span>and ’Elohim<\/span>;<\/em> ‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as Hupsistos<\/span>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). Pantokrator<\/span> (‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with Theos<\/span>.<\/em> The name Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\nKurios<\/span>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names Yahweh<\/span> and ‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> yet the NT does give Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\nDespotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\nIn the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\nGod’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\nIn the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\nIn the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (<\/em>onoma<\/span>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\nWith regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\nThe Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\nThe name ’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term ’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be ’ul<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition ’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word ’alim<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. ’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). ’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that ’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of ’El<\/span>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of ’Eloah<\/span>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\nThe plural form, ’Elohim<\/span>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning ’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name ’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God (<\/em>’Elohim<\/span>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which ’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\nSome scholars point to the use of ’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be ’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, ’<\/span>Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\nThe name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [’<\/span>Eloah<\/span>], but the Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name ’<\/span>Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\nAnother closely related name is ’Elah<\/span>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think ’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of ’Eloah<\/span>.<\/em> Its root is said to be ’alah<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as ’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\nThree other names of God include the term ’El<\/span>:<\/em><\/p>\n’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads ’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span>.<\/em> It is believed that the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb ‘alah<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term ‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term ‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form (<\/em>Shaddai<\/span>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term Shaddai<\/span>.<\/em> Some have begun with shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of shad<\/span> (<\/em>shadah<\/span>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which ’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between shadad<\/span> and Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as ’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates ’El Shaddai<\/span> as Pantokrator<\/span>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term ‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to ‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. ‘Olam<\/span>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, ‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of ’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. ’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with ’Elohim<\/span>.<\/em> Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as Yah<\/span> and Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\nThe exact meaning of the name Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, hawah<\/span>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the qal<\/span> or hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the hiphil<\/span> form read Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\nTranslators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as kurios<\/span>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered Yahweh<\/span> as “Lord<\/span>.” But ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The kjv<\/span>, for example, translates Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and ’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use Yahweh<\/span> (see jb<\/span> and njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either ’Elohim<\/span> or ’Adonai<\/span> for Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of ’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\nThe interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as ’<\/span>El Shaddai<\/span>,<\/em> but by my name Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> They knew him as ’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as Yahweh<\/span>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\nThis name Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\nIn view of the richness of the name Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb saba<\/span>’<\/span>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\nThe compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\nSeveral other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\nYahweh-Nissi<\/span> (nissi<\/span>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rapha<\/span> (rapha’<\/span>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\nYahweh-Rohi<\/span> (ro‘i<\/span>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\nYahweh-Jireh<\/span> (yir’eh<\/span>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (shalom<\/span>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\nYahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term tsadaq<\/span>,<\/em> “righteousness.” Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\nThe word ’adan<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun ’adon<\/span>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. ’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. ’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\nIn the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example ’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> ’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span>,<\/em> and ’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and ’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\nThe personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\nThe term ’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\nIn the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\nIsaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\nThe term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\nThe messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\nThe name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\nThe Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\nTheos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names ’El<\/span>and ’Elohim<\/span>;<\/em> ‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as Hupsistos<\/span>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). Pantokrator<\/span> (‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with Theos<\/span>.<\/em> The name Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\nKurios<\/span>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names Yahweh<\/span> and ‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with Yahweh<\/span>;<\/em> yet the NT does give Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to Yahweh<\/span>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\nDespotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\nIn the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15925,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter to the Hebrews","title_en":"Letter to the Hebrews","content_ro":"<h3>HEBREWS, Letter to the<\/h3>\nOne of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and practical, theological and pastoral. In short, it builds a compelling case for the superiority of Christianity. Hebrews also reflects the impassioned concern of a pastor’s heart. Those who have experienced God’s ultimate work of grace in Christ are urged to hold fast to God’s final word of revelation in his Son.<\/p>\nUnlike most other NT epistles, Hebrews does not begin like a letter. There is no introductory salutation, the writer is not identified, and no mention is made of those to whom the document is addressed. The author characterizes the work as a “word of exhortation” (13:22, rsv<\/span>), which suggests a sermon or oral homily (cf. Acts 13:15). Nonetheless, its conclusion is that of a conventional letter (Heb 13:22-25). Some have detected a gradual transition in the document from an essay to a more specifically epistolary form (cf. 2:1; 4:1; 13:22-25). The evidence thus suggests that the author may have cast the original homiletic “word of exhortation” into letter form when the need to communicate in writing with his Christian friends became urgent.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nWho wrote the book is not directly stated in the letter. Since the late second century, various authorities have linked the document with the apostle Paul. Clement of Alexandria (d. 220) theorized that Paul wrote the letter in Hebrew for Jews and that Luke translated it into Greek. However, this suggestion has not been widely received by modern scholars. Clement’s pupil Origen (d. 254) stated more generally that the thoughts of the letter are Pauline but that the style is unlike that of the known writings of the apostle. Other early authorities, such as Jerome (d. 419) and Augustine (d. 430), persuaded that canonicity demanded apostolic authorship, likewise affirmed that Paul was the author.<\/p>\nYet a number of factors argue against the Pauline authorship of Hebrews. The anonymity of the letter is contrary to the consistent pattern of Paul’s introduction in the opening salutation of his letters. Moreover, Hebrews 2:3 indicates the writer was discipled by eyewitnesses of the Lord. Yet Paul insists that his knowledge of Christ was gained from a firsthand encounter with the risen Christ (cf. Gal 1:12). F. F. Bruce evaluates the authorship of Hebrews as follows: “We may say with certainty that the thought of the epistle is not Paul’s, the language is not Paul’s, and the technique of OT quotations is not Paul’s.”<\/p>\nEarly Christian tradition suggests that Barnabas may have written Hebrews. According to Tertullian (d. 220), many early authorities believed that Barnabas was responsible for the letter. Acts 4:36 (asv<\/span>) speaks of him as a “son of exhortation” (cf. Heb 13:22). Furthermore, as a Levite, Barnabas would have been familiar with the Jewish sacrificial ritual so prominent in the letter.<\/p>\nLuther was the first to suggest that Hebrews may have been penned by Apollos, “an excellent man of learning, who had been a disciple of the apostles and learned much from them, and who was very well versed in Scripture.” As a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24), Apollos would have been familiar with the typological interpretation evident in Hebrews. Clearly Apollos was the sort of man who was qualified to write Hebrews.<\/p>\nOther names have been suggested as possible authors. Calvin surmised that either Luke or Clement of Rome was responsible for the letter. It is noted that the Greek of Hebrews resembles the language and style of the third Gospel and Acts. Others theorize that Hebrews may have been written by Silas, a Jewish Christian from Jerusalem who would have been thoroughly familiar with the Levitical ritual. Silas is described as one of “the church leaders” (Acts 15:22). He was a coworker with Paul in the gentile mission, and apparently was known in Rome as well as in Jerusalem (1 Pt 5:12-13).<\/p>\nIn conclusion, it is probable that the author of Hebrews was a second-generation Jewish Christian, a master of classical Greek whose Bible was the Septuagint, conversant with first-century Alexandrian philosophy, and a creative apologist for the Christian faith. As to the identity of that author, we can affirm no more than Origen in the third century: “But as to who actually wrote the Letter, God alone knows.”<\/p>\n\nBackground<\/p>\nThe very early title of the letter, “To Hebrews,” suggests that the book concerns Jewish Christians living in the Dispersion. The letter itself offers a few hints of the historical circumstances surrounding its composition. Not long after becoming Christians, the readers of the letter were exposed to severe persecution (Heb 10:32-36). During their trial, the new believers endured imprisonment, confiscation of personal property, and public ridicule. Yet the persecution had not been fatal; they had not yet been called upon to lay down their lives in martyrdom (12:4). Amid the excitement of their newfound faith in Christ, they had demonstrated practical concern and love by ministering to fellow believers in need (6:10) and comforting others who had been harassed for their faith (10:34).<\/p>\nBut since the time of those earlier trials, the readers had made little progress in Christian maturity (5:11-13). Moreover, in the face of a new wave of persecution, and despondent over an apparent delay in the Lord’s coming, the believers had begun to waver and abandon hope. Indeed, they threatened to renounce Jesus Christ and to revert back to the security of the Jewish religion that enjoyed the protection of Roman law.<\/p>\nThus we read that because of the strange, new teachings of certain Judaizers who sought to draw them back to their former religion (13:9), the wavering believers had neglected to assemble together (10:25) and had lost confidence in their spiritual leaders (13:17). Faced with the possibility that these Jewish Christians might abandon their faith altogether, the writer sternly warns them of the tragic consequences of renouncing the Son (6:4-6; 10:26-31; 13:12-19) and urges them to renew their commitment to Christ, God’s foremost and final revelation.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nLacking firm information as to the author and recipients of the letter, no certainty exists as to the date of the writing. We have noted that the author of Hebrews, and probably his readers as well, had been discipled by those who were personally acquainted with Jesus (2:3). Further evidence in the letter suggests that Paul probably was not alive. Timothy, Paul’s younger associate, was still living (13:23).<\/p>\nThe absence of any mention in Hebrews of the destruction of the Jerusalem temple is significant for dating the letter. In terms of his argument that the old covenant had passed away and the legal priesthood had been superseded, the writer would scarcely have omitted mention of the temple’s destruction had he written the letter later than AD<\/span> 70. Hebrews 9:6-10 and 10:1-4, 11-14 plainly suggest that the Jewish sacrifices were still being offered. Hence, it may be supposed with some degree of certainty that the letter was written prior to AD<\/span> 70. If it was written after Paul’s death, that would put it after AD<\/span> 67, the traditional date of his execution. Thus, Hebrews may have been written in the period AD<\/span> 67–70.<\/p>\nOrigin and Destination<\/p>\nThe place from which Hebrews was written is also uncertain. Some manuscripts of the letter bear the subscription “written from Rome” or “written from Italy.” Such notations are educated deductions drawn from the statement “The Christians from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24). Most probably this indicates that the writer is extending greetings to a church in Italy on behalf of Italian Christians associated with him in another land, possibly Asia. Nevertheless, we cannot locate the point of origin with any certainty.<\/p>\nIt has been suggested that the letter was written to a group of Jewish converts to Christianity. Yet the precise community to which it was sent is a matter of debate. Opinions vary from Judea to Spain. Tradition has it that Hebrews was directed to Jewish Christians living in Palestine. But against a Palestinian destination it may be argued: (1) the readers had had no personal contact with Jesus (2:3), an unlikely event for mid-first-century residents of Palestine; (2) the statement in 12:4 that his readers had not yet given their lives could hardly be said of Palestinian Christians of the period; (3) the generosity of the believers (10:34; 13:16) was inconsistent with the poverty of the Jerusalem church; and (4) the general tone of the letter is Hellenistic rather than rabbinical.<\/p>\nOther proposals for the destination of Hebrews include (1) Caesarea, on the supposition of Lukan authorship; (2) Syrian Antioch or Cyprus, assuming Barnabas wrote the letter; (3) Ephesus, in the light of the conversion of many Jews during Paul’s ministry in that city; (4) Colosse, noting certain similarities between the Colossian heresy and the false beliefs of the “Hebrews”; and (5) Alexandria, because of the apparent influence of the philosopher Philo Judaeus in the letter.<\/p>\nThe thesis that Hebrews was directed to a group of Jewish Christians in Rome has found favor with a number of scholars. Arguments in support of a Roman destination include the following facts: (1) The letter was first known in Rome no later than AD<\/span> 96. (2) Romans 11:13, 18 suggests that the church at Rome consisted of a Jewish-Christian minority. (3) References to persecution and suffering endured by the readers (Heb 10:32-33; 12:4) are consistent with known repressive measures exacted by the Roman authorities. (4) There is a good possibility that saints who “come from Italy” would convey greetings to their brethren in Rome. (5) The Jewish community in Rome preserved certain features of nonconformist or sectarian Judaism that would explain several notable similarities between the theology and praxis of the Qumran community and that expressed in Hebrews.<\/p>\nIt is likely that the letter was addressed to a small subgroup within a local church. The exhortation in 5:12 (rsv<\/span>)—“by this time you ought to be teachers”—hardly would have been relevant to an entire congregation. Hebrews 13:7, 24 lends further support to the theory that the letter was sent to a small group, perhaps to a “house church” within a larger assembly.<\/p>\nTentatively, one might conclude that the addressees were converts from Judaism who dwelt in the Dispersion. Hence they were familiar with OT Judaism and were acquainted with the religious philosophy of the Greek world. Possibly the readers comprised a house fellowship that tended to disassociate itself from the parent group (10:25). The existence of such house churches in Rome is confirmed by Romans 16:5, 14-15.<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nIn response to the threat that his Jewish-Christian friends might renounce Christianity and revert to Judaism, the writer by a “word of exhortation” (13:22) communicated to them the finality of the Christian revelation. He sought also to inform his despondent, vacillating readers that Christ, the object of God’s final revelation, is vastly superior to the greatest of Judaism’s heroes. The author, in addition, affirmed the heavenly and eternal character of the salvation secured by Christ. Whereas the legal sacrificial system was powerless to effect the remission of sin, Christ the eternal High Priest “is able, once and forever, to save everyone who comes to God through him” (7:25, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn short, the writer commended to his readers the need for patient endurance amid the persecution and sufferings to which the heirs of eternal salvation are inevitably exposed. Just as Jesus, the forerunner of our faith, suffered and patiently endured in anticipation of eternal reward, so ought harassed, oppressed believers “take a new grip with your tired hands and stand firm on your shaky legs” (12:12, nlt<\/span>) in anticipation of their reception in that eternal “kingdom that cannot be destroyed” (12:28, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe author’s final purpose for writing was to proclaim the fearful judgment that awaits those who repudiate Jesus Christ. Since “our God is a consuming fire” (12:29, nlt<\/span>), “what makes us think that we can escape if we are indifferent to this great salvation” (2:3, nlt<\/span>)?<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nNext to Romans, Hebrews is the most doctrinal book in the NT. The writer develops a series of weighty arguments to demonstrate the superiority of the gospel of Christ to the religion of Judaism. Since Jesus is final both as to his person and his work, Christianity is the ultimate and normative faith. The book’s particularism runs counter to the spirit of the modern world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Former Revelation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\nThe writer acknowledges that God revealed himself to the prophets of old in many ways—through dreams, visions, audible speech, and mighty acts. But “in these last days” (the advent of the end times, cf. 9:26) God spoke finally and definitively through his own Son (1:2). Central to the argument is the fact that in one way or another the prophets received an eternal word from God. Yet given the intimate relation of the Son to the Father, God’s latest revelation has come forth from the very depths of his own being.<\/p>\nIdentification of the Son as the pinnacle of divine revelation leads to a concise but profound statement of Christ’s person and his cosmic work. The Son reflects the glory of God in that the sum of the divine attributes brilliantly shine through his person. Moreover, he bears the very image and stamp of God’s nature (1:3), as the wax bears the impress of the seal. Jesus as God’s final word of revelation is truly the divine and eternal Son of God. Christ’s excellence is further displayed in the fact that he is the mighty agent through whom the universe was created (v 2) and by whom the cosmic order is sustained (v 3). In the moral realm he has wrought the purification of sins and now sits enthroned on God’s right hand (cf. 8:1). God’s pleasure toward the Son is seen in that he has appointed Christ heir and head of all (1:2). His name is surpassed by none save God the Father (v 4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Angels (1:5–2:18)<\/h5>\nAngels enjoyed an exalted status in biblical and postbiblical Judaism. Traditionally the Jews believed that angels praised God upon his throne, mediated God’s revelation to men, attended to God’s will, and gave succor to the people of God. Angels were far superior to men in power and knowledge. According to the Jewish Apocrypha, angels ruled the stars and were responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations. In Qumran thought, angelic beings would engage in a final cosmic struggle with Belial and the forces of evil at the end of the age.<\/p>\nAgainst this background the writer of Hebrews argues that the Son is vastly superior to the angels. To prove his point, the author assembles a string of well-known OT texts and applies them directly to the Son. God never said of any angel, “Today I have become your Father” (Ps 2:7, nlt<\/span>). Yet just such a claim was made on behalf of the Son (Heb 1:5). When the Son incarnated himself in the world, he received the obedient worship of angels (v 6). His is the sovereignty and the eternality and the majesty at God’s right hand (vv 8, 11-12). By contrast, angels are “only servants” (v 14) that rank below the Son in dignity and might.<\/p>\nIn Hebrews 2:1-4 the writer parenthetically warns his wavering congregation of the danger of drifting away from the truth of God. If disobedience to the law mediated by angels resulted in stern punishment, how much more severe would be God’s judgment on those who trampled under foot the revelation delivered by the Son? If God’s saving grace in Christ is neglected, retribution will surely follow (2:3).<\/p>\nThe mention of angels turns the writer’s mind to Jesus’ humiliation and exaltation (2:5-18). Psalm 8, a song about the smallness and yet the significance of man, is applied to the experience of Jesus. In assuming human flesh and blood, Jesus was made “for a little while . . . lower than the angels” (Heb 2:7, nlt<\/span>). But subsequent to the completion of his earthly work, he was elevated above the angels and crowned with the glory and honor of heaven (v 9). The theological implications of Christ’s descent and ascent are carefully spelled out: Christ descended to earth (1) to bring many children to glory (v 10), (2) to destroy the devil (v 14), (3) to deliver his people from the bondage of death (v 15), and (4) to make an offering on the cross for the sins of the people (v 17). He ascended to heaven (1) to intercede on our behalf as a faithful High Priest (v 17), and (2) to succor those who are sorely tempted (v 18). The perfect summary of Christ’s person and work is given in Hebrews 2:9: “What we do see is Jesus, who ‘for a little while was made lower than the angels’ and now is ‘crowned with glory and honor’ because he suffered death for us. Yes, by God’s grace, Jesus tasted death for everyone in all the world” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Moses and Joshua (3:1–4:13)<\/h5>\nJewish Christians contemplating reversion to Judaism surely believed that Moses was one of the greatest figures in Israel’s history. So esteemed was the one who led Israel out of Egypt through the wilderness and who gave them the Law that there was no one in Israel’s history so honored as Moses. Yet the author of Hebrews argues that Moses, though faithful to his calling, was but a servant in the house of God. Jesus, by contrast, was not a servant but a Son; he was not a mere dweller in the house but the very builder of the structure. Jesus, therefore, far transcends the revered figure of Moses.<\/p>\nPractical implications are drawn from Jesus’ superiority to Moses. From Psalm 95:7-11 the writer rehearses the tragic experience of Israel under Moses during the desert wanderings (Heb 3:7-19). Throughout the 40-year wilderness experience the people hardened their hearts and rebelled against God. In turn God was provoked by their stubbornness and swore that those who sinned would never enter the rest he was going to provide (vv 10-11, 18). The writer thus argues that if disobedience to God under Moses had serious consequences, forsaking Christ will be much more perilous. Hence the wavering Christians are urged to watch lest due to an evil, unbelieving heart they should fall away from the living God (v 12). Nothing short of steadfast persistence will lead to the attainment of the heavenly goal (v 14).<\/p>\nJoshua, likewise, was regarded as a great leader of Israel. Yet because of disobedience, the people under Joshua’s leadership failed to enter the rest that God had planned. That rest spoken of corresponds to the Sabbath rest of God (4:3-4), and is a concept closely related to salvation. It is a spiritual reality that is achieved by turning from our own empty works and trusting in the finished work of Christ (v 10). The author reminds the readers that “there is a special rest [a Sabbath rest] still waiting for the people of God” (v 9, nlt<\/span>), one that only Christ can provide. Christians not only benefit from this Sabbath rest in the present age but anticipate its full realization in the age to come. One of the chief means of ensuring entry into the Sabbath rest of salvation is the Word of God (v 12). The living and powerful Word penetrates the innermost depths of the soul, reveals our impoverished condition, and strengthens the trusting heart.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priesthood of the Son (4:14–7:28)<\/h5>\nAlmost half of Hebrews is devoted to the priesthood of Jesus Christ. The writer goes to great lengths to demonstrate that the revered Aaronic priestly system has been superseded by the High Priest “in the line of Melchizedek” (5:6; 6:20; 7:11). This central theme had been anticipated earlier when Christ was referred to as “our merciful and faithful High Priest before God” who has made atonement for sins (2:17, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nHebrews makes the claim that Jesus’ priesthood is the ultimate ground of the believers’ confidence (4:14-16). On three counts Jesus surpasses the old legal priestly order. First, he is an exalted<\/em> high priest (v 14). The Jewish high priest climbed the mount to enter the temple sanctuary. But Jesus, our great high priest, has ascended to heaven itself and entered the sanctuary on high. He ministers in no earthly tabernacle but in the very presence of God. Second, Jesus is an empathetic<\/em> high priest (v 15a). Fully God and fully man, Jesus suffers along with his people in their trials and afflictions. From heaven’s perspective he knows fully what his people are called upon to endure. He “feels” our hurts, and he does so perfectly. Finally, Jesus is a sinless<\/em> high priest (v 15b). Day in and day out (7:27), year in and year out, the Levitical priests were required to bring sacrifices for their own sins. Yet Jesus had no sin that needed cleansing, for “he is holy and blameless, unstained by sin” (v 26, nlt<\/span>). In view of Jesus’ priestly perfections, sorely tempted Christians are urged to come to the throne of grace to receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need (4:16).<\/p>\nFor those not convinced that Jesus was indeed a legitimate priest, two prerequisites for priesthood are detailed. First, if the high priest is to represent humanity before God, he must be taken from among men (5:1-2). And second, he must be called by God to high priestly office, as was Aaron (v 4). Christ has fully satisfied these qualifications. From Psalms 2:7 and 110:4 it is shown that Jesus did not take this office upon himself but was appointed by God (Heb 5:5-6). Moreover, from the obedience that he had to learn (v 8) and from the agony of the Gethsemane experience (v 7) it is clear that Jesus was in every way a man. Nevertheless, Hebrews makes it perfectly clear that Jesus was not a priest after the order of Aaron but a high priest in the line of Melchizedek (v 10).<\/p>\nAfter introducing the theme of Christ as a Melchizedekian high priest, the writer recalls that his readers were not ready for such advanced teaching. Although not new converts (5:12), his friends had remained spiritually immature and sluggish. Hence the writer issues the challenge to press on to Christian maturity, to be ready for the solid food of advanced teaching.<\/p>\nIn his digression the writer warns not only against spiritual immaturity but also against “apostasy.” The question now arises whether the author’s apostasy teaching in Hebrews 6:4-8 and 10:26-31 contradicts the NT doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. Undoubtedly it does not. Some authorities hold that those addressed were not true Christians, hence the issue is not one of apostasy. It is possible, like Judas Iscariot or Simon Magus (Acts 8:9-24), to possess considerable knowledge of the gospel and fall short of personal commitment. But the writer makes it quite clear that in the case of his addressees he is persuaded otherwise (Heb 6:9). The most reasonable view is that in these two hortatory passages the writer advances a hypothetical argument warning his friends of the utter seriousness of reverting back to Judaism. That is, if a falling away were to occur, renewal would be impossible unless Christ were to die a second time. The writer sums up the point of these difficult passages with the words “It is a terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:31, nlt<\/span>). Nevertheless, followers of Christ may confidently lay hold of God’s promises, confirmed by solemn oath, to see them through their trials (6:13-18). God may be trusted to hold the believer fast.<\/p>\nHebrews 7 contains an intricate argument for the superiority of Christ’s priesthood over the old legal order. Melchizedek, the ancient priest-king of Salem (Gn 14:18-20), is regarded as a primordial type of Christ. He is “king of righteousness” and “king of peace” (Heb 7:2). The solemn priest from Salem has figuratively what Christ possesses actually: neither mother nor father, neither beginning nor end of life (v 3). Melchizedek is shown to be superior to Abraham on three counts: (1) Melchizedek blessed the patriarch (vv 1, 7); (2) he accepted tithes from Abraham (vv 2-6); and (3) Melchizedek lives on since the OT nowhere mentions his death (v 8). It follows that since Levi was in the loins of Abraham as seed (v 10), Melchizedek is superior to the Levitical priests. And inasmuch as Christ is a priest in the likeness of Melchizedek (v 15), it follows that the Son of God is more excellent than the old legal priesthood.<\/p>\nThe result is that the old Levitical priesthood has been superseded by the priesthood of Christ. The demise of the old order was inevitable, for its repetitive animal sacrifices could never effect spiritual perfection (7:11). It was a system characterized by weakness and uselessness (v 18). By contrast, Christ’s priesthood is indestructible, eternal, uninterrupted, efficacious, final, and perfect (vv 16, 21, 24-27). Forgiveness and reconciliation is possible only through Christ, our great High Priest.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priestly Work of the Son (8:1–10:39)<\/h5>\nSince Christ’s priestly office far excels the old order, it follows that his priestly ministration is superior to all that has gone before. The theme of Christ as high priest in a better sanctuary is introduced (8:1-5). The writer utilizes Plato’s distinction between the ideal form in heaven and the imperfect copy on earth to argue that the Levitical sanctuary and sacrifices are mere shadows of the heavenly realities: (1) Christ ministers in the true tent that is the heavenly sanctuary (vv 2, 5); (2) he discharges his high priestly service in the very presence of the Father, which results in a far more effective ministry (vv 1, 6); and (3) his oblation on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice (v 3). How unreasonable it is that his Christian readers should go back to the old Jewish priestly system!<\/p>\nChrist is the minister of a new and better covenant (8:6-13). The old covenant established by God with the nation’s fathers was not to be despised; nevertheless, it had become ineffectual and obsolete (v 13). Indeed, the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34) foresaw the new covenant that God would inaugurate with his people. This new covenant sealed by Christ involves (1) the immediate work of the Holy Spirit on the mind and heart (Heb 8:10); (2) a personal and intimate knowledge of God (v 11); and (3) the full absolution of sins (v 12). This new and better covenant has been established on the work of Christ, the great High Priest.<\/p>\nChapter 9 gives a detailed comparison of the efficacy of priestly service under the old and new covenants. The Levitical priests ministered in a material sanctuary on earth (vv 1-5). Features of the tabernacle and its furnishings are described to highlight their obsolescence. More important, however, is the character of the sacrificial ritual conducted in the earthly sanctuary. The Jewish priests in their daily service were not permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, which contained the ark of the covenant and the mercy seat—the place of propitiation of sins (v 6). The high priest alone could enter the Holy of Holies, and then but once a year on the Day of Atonement, and only after sacrificing for his own sins (v 7). The inaccessibility of the Holy of Holies signified that access to the presence of God had not been opened. The presence of the curtain symbolized that the people had no way to the throne of God, the priests had no way, and the high priest had a limited way and only once a year. Moreover, the sacrifices brought by the Jewish priests could not purify the conscience but merely dealt with external ritual cleansing (vv 9-10). A truly effectual sacrifice must await “the time of reformation” (v 10).<\/p>\nChrist’s priestly ministration is shown to be far more efficacious. First, the Christian’s High Priest has brought a better sacrifice (9:11-14), and here we arrive at the heart of the message of Hebrews. Employing the imagery of the tabernacle, the author demonstrates that Christ our High Priest has accomplished what the Jewish priests failed to do. He entered the heavenly Holy of Holies, not repeatedly, but once<\/em> for all, thereby effecting a completed redemption (v 12). Christ brought to the altar, not the blood of bulls and goats, but his own life’s blood. The Lord did not merely lay down a material body, but he presented himself to God through the eternal Spirit (v 14). Christ’s better sacrifice thus goes beyond cleansing of the flesh to the purification of the defiled conscience.<\/p>\nSecond, Christ through his death has instituted a better covenant (9:15-23). The teaching of Hebrews 8:6-13 is developed further. The old covenant was sealed with the blood of calves and goats (9:19). But the new covenant was ratified with the blood of Christ, God’s own Son. The new covenant thus could accomplish what the old covenant merely foreshadowed—forgiveness and cleansing of sins (v 22).<\/p>\nThird, Christ ministers in a better tabernacle (9:24-28). Our Lord entered, not into a merely earthly sanctuary, but into the holy place of heaven, there to represent us (v 24). Access to the throne is not limited to one day per year, for he is continually in the presence of the Father. Nor is it necessary that repeated sacrifices be made. Christ’s single sacrifice on the cross has conquered sin once and for all (v 26). In sum, as regards the sanctuary, the covenant, and the sacrifices, the Christian’s High Priest is vastly superior to the old Jewish order.<\/p>\nIn order to drive home these crucial points, the writer in chapter 10 expands on the theme of the absolute finality of Christ’s high priestly work. The earlier argument concerning the futile character of the Levitical sacrifices (9:6-14) is repeated for emphasis (10:1-4). The Mosaic ceremonial legislation called for repetitive sacrifices, which could never perfect the worshiper (v 1). Instead of purifying one’s life, they served only as a yearly reminder of sin (v 3) until Christ should come.<\/p>\nThe writer discovers in Psalm 40:6-8 a prediction that the eternal Christ would become man for the purpose of offering himself as the ultimate sacrifice for sin (Heb 10:5-10). Once again the sanctifying power of Christ’s single self-oblation is emphasized (v 10). The vivid contrast is again drawn between the ineffective ministry of the Jewish priests who stand during the daily ritual (v 11), and the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now seated at the right hand of God (v 12). Since Jesus “by that one offering . . . perfected forever all those whom he is making holy” (v 14, nlt<\/span>), nothing can be added to what the seated Sovereign has accomplished (v 18).<\/p>\nIn view of the manifest superiority of Christ’s priestly office and work, the struggling Christians are exhorted to appropriate the means of grace at their disposal (10:19-39). In the midst of trials and persecution they should remember that Christ has effectively opened the way to God (vv 19-20). They are summoned to come to God in faith with hearts cleansed by Christ’s sacrifice (v 22). Those tempted to revert to legal religion should hold fast and support one another in love (vv 23-24). The means of grace afforded by corporate worship should not be neglected (v 25). In short, the wavering Jewish Christians are summoned to renewed endurance and fidelity to their Lord (vv 26-31). What God has promised to his people he will surely make good.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Life of Faith (11:1–12:29)<\/h5>\nThe discussion of faith and endurance as the solution to despondency (10:36-38) prompts a fuller consideration of the faith theme. Faith is a prominent concept in the book of Hebrews, as attested by the fact that the word occurs some 35 times in the letter. The Pauline idea of faith as the means of legal justification is adapted to the particular circumstances of the threatened Jewish Christians. The concept of faith is broader in this book than the strictly saving faith discussed by Paul, in that it leads to spiritual salvation (11:39-40). Faith is the power by which heaven’s unseen realities are laid hold of to satisfy the soul. Faith enables the Christian disciple to view the world and interpret the flow of history from the divine perspective. Faith is the means of victory over the world of sin and woe. Through faith the believer approaches the throne of grace (4:16) with the confidence and assurance that God will enable him to overcome.<\/p>\nThe victory faith affords is amply illustrated from the history of God’s OT people. Abel, Enoch, and Noah in the primal history; Abraham, the father of faith; Moses, the leader of the young nation; and many valiant prophets and martyrs serve as living memorials to faith’s overcoming power. And yet God has something better in store for his sanctified people, the church (11:40): the reality of the living Christ.<\/p>\nYet the greatest model of steadfast endurance in suffering is Jesus, “the Originator and Perfecter of our faith” (12:2, nlt<\/span> mg). When surrounded with trials, the Christian needs to recall Christ, who in anticipation of the heavenly crown endured the cross and its shame. The Christian’s trials are trivial compared with what Jesus Christ was called upon to suffer (v 3). Moreover, for the people of God, suffering and persecution prove to be disguised blessings. The rod of discipline confirms our status as children of the living God (vv 5-10). But beyond this, the sovereign God is able to transform the Christian’s suffering into inestimable blessing (v 11). Hence the wavering saints should strive for spiritual wholeness and maturity, taking care lest they be overtaken by bitterness and resentment (v 15).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Exhortations and Benediction (13:1-25)<\/h5>\nThe writer in his closing words challenges his Christian friends to be faithful to the tasks that lie at hand. They are to show continued love to the brethren, to extend hospitality to strangers, to uphold the sanctity of marriage, to be content with what they now possess, and to be obedient to their spiritual leaders (13:1-7).<\/p>\nThe readers are warned against the trickery of the Judaizers, who would lead them astray from Jesus Christ, the one who remains “the same yesterday, today, and forever” (13:8). Spiritual determination is strengthened by recalling the example of Christ, who “suffered outside the city gates” for their salvation (v 12). As the people of God, they are challenged to follow Christ “outside the camp,” bearing abuse for him (v 13). Patient endurance is possible when the Christian realizes that he has no enduring city here (v 14). His goal is the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\nThe anonymous letter to the unknown “Hebrews” closes with a glorious benediction. The Christian’s God is described as the great “God of peace” (13:20), and Jesus is “the great Shepherd of the sheep,” who established a new and eternal covenant and then rose triumphant from the dead. And the promise is made to the trusting soul that the triune God would “equip you with all you need for doing his will” (v 21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe letter to the Hebrews is rich in doctrinal teaching. It discloses more about the historical Jesus than any other NT letter. It alone explains the atoning work of Christ under the rubric of the Melchizedekian priest. The letter’s discussion of repentance, justification, sanctification, and perseverance makes it a mine of salvation teaching. Its explication of old and new covenants, impending judgment, and the world to come make a significant contribution to Christian theology. And the letter’s teaching on faith, endurance, and the practical Christian combine to make Hebrews one of the most important documents God has given to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEBREWS, Letter to the<\/h3>\nOne of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and practical, theological and pastoral. In short, it builds a compelling case for the superiority of Christianity. Hebrews also reflects the impassioned concern of a pastor’s heart. Those who have experienced God’s ultimate work of grace in Christ are urged to hold fast to God’s final word of revelation in his Son.<\/p>\nUnlike most other NT epistles, Hebrews does not begin like a letter. There is no introductory salutation, the writer is not identified, and no mention is made of those to whom the document is addressed. The author characterizes the work as a “word of exhortation” (13:22, rsv<\/span>), which suggests a sermon or oral homily (cf. Acts 13:15). Nonetheless, its conclusion is that of a conventional letter (Heb 13:22-25). Some have detected a gradual transition in the document from an essay to a more specifically epistolary form (cf. 2:1; 4:1; 13:22-25). The evidence thus suggests that the author may have cast the original homiletic “word of exhortation” into letter form when the need to communicate in writing with his Christian friends became urgent.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n• Purpose<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nWho wrote the book is not directly stated in the letter. Since the late second century, various authorities have linked the document with the apostle Paul. Clement of Alexandria (d. 220) theorized that Paul wrote the letter in Hebrew for Jews and that Luke translated it into Greek. However, this suggestion has not been widely received by modern scholars. Clement’s pupil Origen (d. 254) stated more generally that the thoughts of the letter are Pauline but that the style is unlike that of the known writings of the apostle. Other early authorities, such as Jerome (d. 419) and Augustine (d. 430), persuaded that canonicity demanded apostolic authorship, likewise affirmed that Paul was the author.<\/p>\nYet a number of factors argue against the Pauline authorship of Hebrews. The anonymity of the letter is contrary to the consistent pattern of Paul’s introduction in the opening salutation of his letters. Moreover, Hebrews 2:3 indicates the writer was discipled by eyewitnesses of the Lord. Yet Paul insists that his knowledge of Christ was gained from a firsthand encounter with the risen Christ (cf. Gal 1:12). F. F. Bruce evaluates the authorship of Hebrews as follows: “We may say with certainty that the thought of the epistle is not Paul’s, the language is not Paul’s, and the technique of OT quotations is not Paul’s.”<\/p>\nEarly Christian tradition suggests that Barnabas may have written Hebrews. According to Tertullian (d. 220), many early authorities believed that Barnabas was responsible for the letter. Acts 4:36 (asv<\/span>) speaks of him as a “son of exhortation” (cf. Heb 13:22). Furthermore, as a Levite, Barnabas would have been familiar with the Jewish sacrificial ritual so prominent in the letter.<\/p>\nLuther was the first to suggest that Hebrews may have been penned by Apollos, “an excellent man of learning, who had been a disciple of the apostles and learned much from them, and who was very well versed in Scripture.” As a native of Alexandria (Acts 18:24), Apollos would have been familiar with the typological interpretation evident in Hebrews. Clearly Apollos was the sort of man who was qualified to write Hebrews.<\/p>\nOther names have been suggested as possible authors. Calvin surmised that either Luke or Clement of Rome was responsible for the letter. It is noted that the Greek of Hebrews resembles the language and style of the third Gospel and Acts. Others theorize that Hebrews may have been written by Silas, a Jewish Christian from Jerusalem who would have been thoroughly familiar with the Levitical ritual. Silas is described as one of “the church leaders” (Acts 15:22). He was a coworker with Paul in the gentile mission, and apparently was known in Rome as well as in Jerusalem (1 Pt 5:12-13).<\/p>\nIn conclusion, it is probable that the author of Hebrews was a second-generation Jewish Christian, a master of classical Greek whose Bible was the Septuagint, conversant with first-century Alexandrian philosophy, and a creative apologist for the Christian faith. As to the identity of that author, we can affirm no more than Origen in the third century: “But as to who actually wrote the Letter, God alone knows.”<\/p>\n\nBackground<\/p>\nThe very early title of the letter, “To Hebrews,” suggests that the book concerns Jewish Christians living in the Dispersion. The letter itself offers a few hints of the historical circumstances surrounding its composition. Not long after becoming Christians, the readers of the letter were exposed to severe persecution (Heb 10:32-36). During their trial, the new believers endured imprisonment, confiscation of personal property, and public ridicule. Yet the persecution had not been fatal; they had not yet been called upon to lay down their lives in martyrdom (12:4). Amid the excitement of their newfound faith in Christ, they had demonstrated practical concern and love by ministering to fellow believers in need (6:10) and comforting others who had been harassed for their faith (10:34).<\/p>\nBut since the time of those earlier trials, the readers had made little progress in Christian maturity (5:11-13). Moreover, in the face of a new wave of persecution, and despondent over an apparent delay in the Lord’s coming, the believers had begun to waver and abandon hope. Indeed, they threatened to renounce Jesus Christ and to revert back to the security of the Jewish religion that enjoyed the protection of Roman law.<\/p>\nThus we read that because of the strange, new teachings of certain Judaizers who sought to draw them back to their former religion (13:9), the wavering believers had neglected to assemble together (10:25) and had lost confidence in their spiritual leaders (13:17). Faced with the possibility that these Jewish Christians might abandon their faith altogether, the writer sternly warns them of the tragic consequences of renouncing the Son (6:4-6; 10:26-31; 13:12-19) and urges them to renew their commitment to Christ, God’s foremost and final revelation.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nLacking firm information as to the author and recipients of the letter, no certainty exists as to the date of the writing. We have noted that the author of Hebrews, and probably his readers as well, had been discipled by those who were personally acquainted with Jesus (2:3). Further evidence in the letter suggests that Paul probably was not alive. Timothy, Paul’s younger associate, was still living (13:23).<\/p>\nThe absence of any mention in Hebrews of the destruction of the Jerusalem temple is significant for dating the letter. In terms of his argument that the old covenant had passed away and the legal priesthood had been superseded, the writer would scarcely have omitted mention of the temple’s destruction had he written the letter later than AD<\/span> 70. Hebrews 9:6-10 and 10:1-4, 11-14 plainly suggest that the Jewish sacrifices were still being offered. Hence, it may be supposed with some degree of certainty that the letter was written prior to AD<\/span> 70. If it was written after Paul’s death, that would put it after AD<\/span> 67, the traditional date of his execution. Thus, Hebrews may have been written in the period AD<\/span> 67–70.<\/p>\nOrigin and Destination<\/p>\nThe place from which Hebrews was written is also uncertain. Some manuscripts of the letter bear the subscription “written from Rome” or “written from Italy.” Such notations are educated deductions drawn from the statement “The Christians from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24). Most probably this indicates that the writer is extending greetings to a church in Italy on behalf of Italian Christians associated with him in another land, possibly Asia. Nevertheless, we cannot locate the point of origin with any certainty.<\/p>\nIt has been suggested that the letter was written to a group of Jewish converts to Christianity. Yet the precise community to which it was sent is a matter of debate. Opinions vary from Judea to Spain. Tradition has it that Hebrews was directed to Jewish Christians living in Palestine. But against a Palestinian destination it may be argued: (1) the readers had had no personal contact with Jesus (2:3), an unlikely event for mid-first-century residents of Palestine; (2) the statement in 12:4 that his readers had not yet given their lives could hardly be said of Palestinian Christians of the period; (3) the generosity of the believers (10:34; 13:16) was inconsistent with the poverty of the Jerusalem church; and (4) the general tone of the letter is Hellenistic rather than rabbinical.<\/p>\nOther proposals for the destination of Hebrews include (1) Caesarea, on the supposition of Lukan authorship; (2) Syrian Antioch or Cyprus, assuming Barnabas wrote the letter; (3) Ephesus, in the light of the conversion of many Jews during Paul’s ministry in that city; (4) Colosse, noting certain similarities between the Colossian heresy and the false beliefs of the “Hebrews”; and (5) Alexandria, because of the apparent influence of the philosopher Philo Judaeus in the letter.<\/p>\nThe thesis that Hebrews was directed to a group of Jewish Christians in Rome has found favor with a number of scholars. Arguments in support of a Roman destination include the following facts: (1) The letter was first known in Rome no later than AD<\/span> 96. (2) Romans 11:13, 18 suggests that the church at Rome consisted of a Jewish-Christian minority. (3) References to persecution and suffering endured by the readers (Heb 10:32-33; 12:4) are consistent with known repressive measures exacted by the Roman authorities. (4) There is a good possibility that saints who “come from Italy” would convey greetings to their brethren in Rome. (5) The Jewish community in Rome preserved certain features of nonconformist or sectarian Judaism that would explain several notable similarities between the theology and praxis of the Qumran community and that expressed in Hebrews.<\/p>\nIt is likely that the letter was addressed to a small subgroup within a local church. The exhortation in 5:12 (rsv<\/span>)—“by this time you ought to be teachers”—hardly would have been relevant to an entire congregation. Hebrews 13:7, 24 lends further support to the theory that the letter was sent to a small group, perhaps to a “house church” within a larger assembly.<\/p>\nTentatively, one might conclude that the addressees were converts from Judaism who dwelt in the Dispersion. Hence they were familiar with OT Judaism and were acquainted with the religious philosophy of the Greek world. Possibly the readers comprised a house fellowship that tended to disassociate itself from the parent group (10:25). The existence of such house churches in Rome is confirmed by Romans 16:5, 14-15.<\/p>\nPurpose<\/p>\nIn response to the threat that his Jewish-Christian friends might renounce Christianity and revert to Judaism, the writer by a “word of exhortation” (13:22) communicated to them the finality of the Christian revelation. He sought also to inform his despondent, vacillating readers that Christ, the object of God’s final revelation, is vastly superior to the greatest of Judaism’s heroes. The author, in addition, affirmed the heavenly and eternal character of the salvation secured by Christ. Whereas the legal sacrificial system was powerless to effect the remission of sin, Christ the eternal High Priest “is able, once and forever, to save everyone who comes to God through him” (7:25, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn short, the writer commended to his readers the need for patient endurance amid the persecution and sufferings to which the heirs of eternal salvation are inevitably exposed. Just as Jesus, the forerunner of our faith, suffered and patiently endured in anticipation of eternal reward, so ought harassed, oppressed believers “take a new grip with your tired hands and stand firm on your shaky legs” (12:12, nlt<\/span>) in anticipation of their reception in that eternal “kingdom that cannot be destroyed” (12:28, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe author’s final purpose for writing was to proclaim the fearful judgment that awaits those who repudiate Jesus Christ. Since “our God is a consuming fire” (12:29, nlt<\/span>), “what makes us think that we can escape if we are indifferent to this great salvation” (2:3, nlt<\/span>)?<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\nNext to Romans, Hebrews is the most doctrinal book in the NT. The writer develops a series of weighty arguments to demonstrate the superiority of the gospel of Christ to the religion of Judaism. Since Jesus is final both as to his person and his work, Christianity is the ultimate and normative faith. The book’s particularism runs counter to the spirit of the modern world.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Former Revelation (1:1-4)<\/h5>\nThe writer acknowledges that God revealed himself to the prophets of old in many ways—through dreams, visions, audible speech, and mighty acts. But “in these last days” (the advent of the end times, cf. 9:26) God spoke finally and definitively through his own Son (1:2). Central to the argument is the fact that in one way or another the prophets received an eternal word from God. Yet given the intimate relation of the Son to the Father, God’s latest revelation has come forth from the very depths of his own being.<\/p>\nIdentification of the Son as the pinnacle of divine revelation leads to a concise but profound statement of Christ’s person and his cosmic work. The Son reflects the glory of God in that the sum of the divine attributes brilliantly shine through his person. Moreover, he bears the very image and stamp of God’s nature (1:3), as the wax bears the impress of the seal. Jesus as God’s final word of revelation is truly the divine and eternal Son of God. Christ’s excellence is further displayed in the fact that he is the mighty agent through whom the universe was created (v 2) and by whom the cosmic order is sustained (v 3). In the moral realm he has wrought the purification of sins and now sits enthroned on God’s right hand (cf. 8:1). God’s pleasure toward the Son is seen in that he has appointed Christ heir and head of all (1:2). His name is surpassed by none save God the Father (v 4).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Angels (1:5–2:18)<\/h5>\nAngels enjoyed an exalted status in biblical and postbiblical Judaism. Traditionally the Jews believed that angels praised God upon his throne, mediated God’s revelation to men, attended to God’s will, and gave succor to the people of God. Angels were far superior to men in power and knowledge. According to the Jewish Apocrypha, angels ruled the stars and were responsible for the rise and fall of civilizations. In Qumran thought, angelic beings would engage in a final cosmic struggle with Belial and the forces of evil at the end of the age.<\/p>\nAgainst this background the writer of Hebrews argues that the Son is vastly superior to the angels. To prove his point, the author assembles a string of well-known OT texts and applies them directly to the Son. God never said of any angel, “Today I have become your Father” (Ps 2:7, nlt<\/span>). Yet just such a claim was made on behalf of the Son (Heb 1:5). When the Son incarnated himself in the world, he received the obedient worship of angels (v 6). His is the sovereignty and the eternality and the majesty at God’s right hand (vv 8, 11-12). By contrast, angels are “only servants” (v 14) that rank below the Son in dignity and might.<\/p>\nIn Hebrews 2:1-4 the writer parenthetically warns his wavering congregation of the danger of drifting away from the truth of God. If disobedience to the law mediated by angels resulted in stern punishment, how much more severe would be God’s judgment on those who trampled under foot the revelation delivered by the Son? If God’s saving grace in Christ is neglected, retribution will surely follow (2:3).<\/p>\nThe mention of angels turns the writer’s mind to Jesus’ humiliation and exaltation (2:5-18). Psalm 8, a song about the smallness and yet the significance of man, is applied to the experience of Jesus. In assuming human flesh and blood, Jesus was made “for a little while . . . lower than the angels” (Heb 2:7, nlt<\/span>). But subsequent to the completion of his earthly work, he was elevated above the angels and crowned with the glory and honor of heaven (v 9). The theological implications of Christ’s descent and ascent are carefully spelled out: Christ descended to earth (1) to bring many children to glory (v 10), (2) to destroy the devil (v 14), (3) to deliver his people from the bondage of death (v 15), and (4) to make an offering on the cross for the sins of the people (v 17). He ascended to heaven (1) to intercede on our behalf as a faithful High Priest (v 17), and (2) to succor those who are sorely tempted (v 18). The perfect summary of Christ’s person and work is given in Hebrews 2:9: “What we do see is Jesus, who ‘for a little while was made lower than the angels’ and now is ‘crowned with glory and honor’ because he suffered death for us. Yes, by God’s grace, Jesus tasted death for everyone in all the world” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Son to Moses and Joshua (3:1–4:13)<\/h5>\nJewish Christians contemplating reversion to Judaism surely believed that Moses was one of the greatest figures in Israel’s history. So esteemed was the one who led Israel out of Egypt through the wilderness and who gave them the Law that there was no one in Israel’s history so honored as Moses. Yet the author of Hebrews argues that Moses, though faithful to his calling, was but a servant in the house of God. Jesus, by contrast, was not a servant but a Son; he was not a mere dweller in the house but the very builder of the structure. Jesus, therefore, far transcends the revered figure of Moses.<\/p>\nPractical implications are drawn from Jesus’ superiority to Moses. From Psalm 95:7-11 the writer rehearses the tragic experience of Israel under Moses during the desert wanderings (Heb 3:7-19). Throughout the 40-year wilderness experience the people hardened their hearts and rebelled against God. In turn God was provoked by their stubbornness and swore that those who sinned would never enter the rest he was going to provide (vv 10-11, 18). The writer thus argues that if disobedience to God under Moses had serious consequences, forsaking Christ will be much more perilous. Hence the wavering Christians are urged to watch lest due to an evil, unbelieving heart they should fall away from the living God (v 12). Nothing short of steadfast persistence will lead to the attainment of the heavenly goal (v 14).<\/p>\nJoshua, likewise, was regarded as a great leader of Israel. Yet because of disobedience, the people under Joshua’s leadership failed to enter the rest that God had planned. That rest spoken of corresponds to the Sabbath rest of God (4:3-4), and is a concept closely related to salvation. It is a spiritual reality that is achieved by turning from our own empty works and trusting in the finished work of Christ (v 10). The author reminds the readers that “there is a special rest [a Sabbath rest] still waiting for the people of God” (v 9, nlt<\/span>), one that only Christ can provide. Christians not only benefit from this Sabbath rest in the present age but anticipate its full realization in the age to come. One of the chief means of ensuring entry into the Sabbath rest of salvation is the Word of God (v 12). The living and powerful Word penetrates the innermost depths of the soul, reveals our impoverished condition, and strengthens the trusting heart.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priesthood of the Son (4:14–7:28)<\/h5>\nAlmost half of Hebrews is devoted to the priesthood of Jesus Christ. The writer goes to great lengths to demonstrate that the revered Aaronic priestly system has been superseded by the High Priest “in the line of Melchizedek” (5:6; 6:20; 7:11). This central theme had been anticipated earlier when Christ was referred to as “our merciful and faithful High Priest before God” who has made atonement for sins (2:17, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nHebrews makes the claim that Jesus’ priesthood is the ultimate ground of the believers’ confidence (4:14-16). On three counts Jesus surpasses the old legal priestly order. First, he is an exalted<\/em> high priest (v 14). The Jewish high priest climbed the mount to enter the temple sanctuary. But Jesus, our great high priest, has ascended to heaven itself and entered the sanctuary on high. He ministers in no earthly tabernacle but in the very presence of God. Second, Jesus is an empathetic<\/em> high priest (v 15a). Fully God and fully man, Jesus suffers along with his people in their trials and afflictions. From heaven’s perspective he knows fully what his people are called upon to endure. He “feels” our hurts, and he does so perfectly. Finally, Jesus is a sinless<\/em> high priest (v 15b). Day in and day out (7:27), year in and year out, the Levitical priests were required to bring sacrifices for their own sins. Yet Jesus had no sin that needed cleansing, for “he is holy and blameless, unstained by sin” (v 26, nlt<\/span>). In view of Jesus’ priestly perfections, sorely tempted Christians are urged to come to the throne of grace to receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need (4:16).<\/p>\nFor those not convinced that Jesus was indeed a legitimate priest, two prerequisites for priesthood are detailed. First, if the high priest is to represent humanity before God, he must be taken from among men (5:1-2). And second, he must be called by God to high priestly office, as was Aaron (v 4). Christ has fully satisfied these qualifications. From Psalms 2:7 and 110:4 it is shown that Jesus did not take this office upon himself but was appointed by God (Heb 5:5-6). Moreover, from the obedience that he had to learn (v 8) and from the agony of the Gethsemane experience (v 7) it is clear that Jesus was in every way a man. Nevertheless, Hebrews makes it perfectly clear that Jesus was not a priest after the order of Aaron but a high priest in the line of Melchizedek (v 10).<\/p>\nAfter introducing the theme of Christ as a Melchizedekian high priest, the writer recalls that his readers were not ready for such advanced teaching. Although not new converts (5:12), his friends had remained spiritually immature and sluggish. Hence the writer issues the challenge to press on to Christian maturity, to be ready for the solid food of advanced teaching.<\/p>\nIn his digression the writer warns not only against spiritual immaturity but also against “apostasy.” The question now arises whether the author’s apostasy teaching in Hebrews 6:4-8 and 10:26-31 contradicts the NT doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. Undoubtedly it does not. Some authorities hold that those addressed were not true Christians, hence the issue is not one of apostasy. It is possible, like Judas Iscariot or Simon Magus (Acts 8:9-24), to possess considerable knowledge of the gospel and fall short of personal commitment. But the writer makes it quite clear that in the case of his addressees he is persuaded otherwise (Heb 6:9). The most reasonable view is that in these two hortatory passages the writer advances a hypothetical argument warning his friends of the utter seriousness of reverting back to Judaism. That is, if a falling away were to occur, renewal would be impossible unless Christ were to die a second time. The writer sums up the point of these difficult passages with the words “It is a terrible thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:31, nlt<\/span>). Nevertheless, followers of Christ may confidently lay hold of God’s promises, confirmed by solemn oath, to see them through their trials (6:13-18). God may be trusted to hold the believer fast.<\/p>\nHebrews 7 contains an intricate argument for the superiority of Christ’s priesthood over the old legal order. Melchizedek, the ancient priest-king of Salem (Gn 14:18-20), is regarded as a primordial type of Christ. He is “king of righteousness” and “king of peace” (Heb 7:2). The solemn priest from Salem has figuratively what Christ possesses actually: neither mother nor father, neither beginning nor end of life (v 3). Melchizedek is shown to be superior to Abraham on three counts: (1) Melchizedek blessed the patriarch (vv 1, 7); (2) he accepted tithes from Abraham (vv 2-6); and (3) Melchizedek lives on since the OT nowhere mentions his death (v 8). It follows that since Levi was in the loins of Abraham as seed (v 10), Melchizedek is superior to the Levitical priests. And inasmuch as Christ is a priest in the likeness of Melchizedek (v 15), it follows that the Son of God is more excellent than the old legal priesthood.<\/p>\nThe result is that the old Levitical priesthood has been superseded by the priesthood of Christ. The demise of the old order was inevitable, for its repetitive animal sacrifices could never effect spiritual perfection (7:11). It was a system characterized by weakness and uselessness (v 18). By contrast, Christ’s priesthood is indestructible, eternal, uninterrupted, efficacious, final, and perfect (vv 16, 21, 24-27). Forgiveness and reconciliation is possible only through Christ, our great High Priest.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Priestly Work of the Son (8:1–10:39)<\/h5>\nSince Christ’s priestly office far excels the old order, it follows that his priestly ministration is superior to all that has gone before. The theme of Christ as high priest in a better sanctuary is introduced (8:1-5). The writer utilizes Plato’s distinction between the ideal form in heaven and the imperfect copy on earth to argue that the Levitical sanctuary and sacrifices are mere shadows of the heavenly realities: (1) Christ ministers in the true tent that is the heavenly sanctuary (vv 2, 5); (2) he discharges his high priestly service in the very presence of the Father, which results in a far more effective ministry (vv 1, 6); and (3) his oblation on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice (v 3). How unreasonable it is that his Christian readers should go back to the old Jewish priestly system!<\/p>\nChrist is the minister of a new and better covenant (8:6-13). The old covenant established by God with the nation’s fathers was not to be despised; nevertheless, it had become ineffectual and obsolete (v 13). Indeed, the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34) foresaw the new covenant that God would inaugurate with his people. This new covenant sealed by Christ involves (1) the immediate work of the Holy Spirit on the mind and heart (Heb 8:10); (2) a personal and intimate knowledge of God (v 11); and (3) the full absolution of sins (v 12). This new and better covenant has been established on the work of Christ, the great High Priest.<\/p>\nChapter 9 gives a detailed comparison of the efficacy of priestly service under the old and new covenants. The Levitical priests ministered in a material sanctuary on earth (vv 1-5). Features of the tabernacle and its furnishings are described to highlight their obsolescence. More important, however, is the character of the sacrificial ritual conducted in the earthly sanctuary. The Jewish priests in their daily service were not permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, which contained the ark of the covenant and the mercy seat—the place of propitiation of sins (v 6). The high priest alone could enter the Holy of Holies, and then but once a year on the Day of Atonement, and only after sacrificing for his own sins (v 7). The inaccessibility of the Holy of Holies signified that access to the presence of God had not been opened. The presence of the curtain symbolized that the people had no way to the throne of God, the priests had no way, and the high priest had a limited way and only once a year. Moreover, the sacrifices brought by the Jewish priests could not purify the conscience but merely dealt with external ritual cleansing (vv 9-10). A truly effectual sacrifice must await “the time of reformation” (v 10).<\/p>\nChrist’s priestly ministration is shown to be far more efficacious. First, the Christian’s High Priest has brought a better sacrifice (9:11-14), and here we arrive at the heart of the message of Hebrews. Employing the imagery of the tabernacle, the author demonstrates that Christ our High Priest has accomplished what the Jewish priests failed to do. He entered the heavenly Holy of Holies, not repeatedly, but once<\/em> for all, thereby effecting a completed redemption (v 12). Christ brought to the altar, not the blood of bulls and goats, but his own life’s blood. The Lord did not merely lay down a material body, but he presented himself to God through the eternal Spirit (v 14). Christ’s better sacrifice thus goes beyond cleansing of the flesh to the purification of the defiled conscience.<\/p>\nSecond, Christ through his death has instituted a better covenant (9:15-23). The teaching of Hebrews 8:6-13 is developed further. The old covenant was sealed with the blood of calves and goats (9:19). But the new covenant was ratified with the blood of Christ, God’s own Son. The new covenant thus could accomplish what the old covenant merely foreshadowed—forgiveness and cleansing of sins (v 22).<\/p>\nThird, Christ ministers in a better tabernacle (9:24-28). Our Lord entered, not into a merely earthly sanctuary, but into the holy place of heaven, there to represent us (v 24). Access to the throne is not limited to one day per year, for he is continually in the presence of the Father. Nor is it necessary that repeated sacrifices be made. Christ’s single sacrifice on the cross has conquered sin once and for all (v 26). In sum, as regards the sanctuary, the covenant, and the sacrifices, the Christian’s High Priest is vastly superior to the old Jewish order.<\/p>\nIn order to drive home these crucial points, the writer in chapter 10 expands on the theme of the absolute finality of Christ’s high priestly work. The earlier argument concerning the futile character of the Levitical sacrifices (9:6-14) is repeated for emphasis (10:1-4). The Mosaic ceremonial legislation called for repetitive sacrifices, which could never perfect the worshiper (v 1). Instead of purifying one’s life, they served only as a yearly reminder of sin (v 3) until Christ should come.<\/p>\nThe writer discovers in Psalm 40:6-8 a prediction that the eternal Christ would become man for the purpose of offering himself as the ultimate sacrifice for sin (Heb 10:5-10). Once again the sanctifying power of Christ’s single self-oblation is emphasized (v 10). The vivid contrast is again drawn between the ineffective ministry of the Jewish priests who stand during the daily ritual (v 11), and the effectual single sacrifice of Christ, who is now seated at the right hand of God (v 12). Since Jesus “by that one offering . . . perfected forever all those whom he is making holy” (v 14, nlt<\/span>), nothing can be added to what the seated Sovereign has accomplished (v 18).<\/p>\nIn view of the manifest superiority of Christ’s priestly office and work, the struggling Christians are exhorted to appropriate the means of grace at their disposal (10:19-39). In the midst of trials and persecution they should remember that Christ has effectively opened the way to God (vv 19-20). They are summoned to come to God in faith with hearts cleansed by Christ’s sacrifice (v 22). Those tempted to revert to legal religion should hold fast and support one another in love (vv 23-24). The means of grace afforded by corporate worship should not be neglected (v 25). In short, the wavering Jewish Christians are summoned to renewed endurance and fidelity to their Lord (vv 26-31). What God has promised to his people he will surely make good.<\/p>\n<h5>The Superiority of the Life of Faith (11:1–12:29)<\/h5>\nThe discussion of faith and endurance as the solution to despondency (10:36-38) prompts a fuller consideration of the faith theme. Faith is a prominent concept in the book of Hebrews, as attested by the fact that the word occurs some 35 times in the letter. The Pauline idea of faith as the means of legal justification is adapted to the particular circumstances of the threatened Jewish Christians. The concept of faith is broader in this book than the strictly saving faith discussed by Paul, in that it leads to spiritual salvation (11:39-40). Faith is the power by which heaven’s unseen realities are laid hold of to satisfy the soul. Faith enables the Christian disciple to view the world and interpret the flow of history from the divine perspective. Faith is the means of victory over the world of sin and woe. Through faith the believer approaches the throne of grace (4:16) with the confidence and assurance that God will enable him to overcome.<\/p>\nThe victory faith affords is amply illustrated from the history of God’s OT people. Abel, Enoch, and Noah in the primal history; Abraham, the father of faith; Moses, the leader of the young nation; and many valiant prophets and martyrs serve as living memorials to faith’s overcoming power. And yet God has something better in store for his sanctified people, the church (11:40): the reality of the living Christ.<\/p>\nYet the greatest model of steadfast endurance in suffering is Jesus, “the Originator and Perfecter of our faith” (12:2, nlt<\/span> mg). When surrounded with trials, the Christian needs to recall Christ, who in anticipation of the heavenly crown endured the cross and its shame. The Christian’s trials are trivial compared with what Jesus Christ was called upon to suffer (v 3). Moreover, for the people of God, suffering and persecution prove to be disguised blessings. The rod of discipline confirms our status as children of the living God (vv 5-10). But beyond this, the sovereign God is able to transform the Christian’s suffering into inestimable blessing (v 11). Hence the wavering saints should strive for spiritual wholeness and maturity, taking care lest they be overtaken by bitterness and resentment (v 15).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Exhortations and Benediction (13:1-25)<\/h5>\nThe writer in his closing words challenges his Christian friends to be faithful to the tasks that lie at hand. They are to show continued love to the brethren, to extend hospitality to strangers, to uphold the sanctity of marriage, to be content with what they now possess, and to be obedient to their spiritual leaders (13:1-7).<\/p>\nThe readers are warned against the trickery of the Judaizers, who would lead them astray from Jesus Christ, the one who remains “the same yesterday, today, and forever” (13:8). Spiritual determination is strengthened by recalling the example of Christ, who “suffered outside the city gates” for their salvation (v 12). As the people of God, they are challenged to follow Christ “outside the camp,” bearing abuse for him (v 13). Patient endurance is possible when the Christian realizes that he has no enduring city here (v 14). His goal is the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\nThe anonymous letter to the unknown “Hebrews” closes with a glorious benediction. The Christian’s God is described as the great “God of peace” (13:20), and Jesus is “the great Shepherd of the sheep,” who established a new and eternal covenant and then rose triumphant from the dead. And the promise is made to the trusting soul that the triune God would “equip you with all you need for doing his will” (v 21, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe letter to the Hebrews is rich in doctrinal teaching. It discloses more about the historical Jesus than any other NT letter. It alone explains the atoning work of Christ under the rubric of the Melchizedekian priest. The letter’s discussion of repentance, justification, sanctification, and perseverance makes it a mine of salvation teaching. Its explication of old and new covenants, impending judgment, and the world to come make a significant contribution to Christian theology. And the letter’s teaching on faith, endurance, and the practical Christian combine to make Hebrews one of the most important documents God has given to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEBREWS, Letter to the One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and ...","summary_en":"HEBREWS, Letter to the One of the most profound and enigmatic books in the NT. The identity of its author, the time of its writing, and the people and place to which it was sent are all shrouded in mystery. Yet, in spite of the uncertainty, Hebrews remains one of the most timely and relevant books in the Bible. Some 300 years ago John Owen, the English Puritan, appropriately remarked: “No doubt the Epistle next in importance to Romans is this to the Hebrews.” The letter is both doctrinal and ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17529,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Inheritance","title_en":"Inheritance","content_ro":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\nLegacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\nLegal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\nWe learn something of early-second-millennium BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\nAccording to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\nAccording to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\nHow highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\nIn the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\nIn another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\nTheological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nThe conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\nThe theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\nSince Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nIn the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\nThat this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\nIn later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\nWe also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\nDoubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\nPaul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\nIndeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nWith a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\nIn Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INHERITANCE<\/h3>\nLegacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times.<\/p>\nLegal and Historical Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchs<\/h5>\nWe learn something of early-second-millennium BC<\/span> practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. Yet exceptions abound. Ishmael (Gn 16:15; 17:15-21), Esau (25:23), and Reuben (49:3-4) did not receive the birthright. Another item of special interest is Abraham’s suggestion that, in the absence of a son, his servant Eliezer might be regarded as the heir (15:2-5); scholars have found confirmation of this practice in Hurrian legal documents of the second millennium.<\/p>\n<h5>The Hebrew Nation<\/h5>\nAccording to Deuteronomy 21:15-17, Hebrew firstborns were legally entitled to a double portion of the inheritance. Israelite law also made provision for widows through the practice of levirate marriage (Dt 25:5; see Gn 38:8; Ru 4:5).<\/p>\nAccording to Numbers 27:1-11, the daughters of Zelophehad argued that they should receive the inheritance since their father had died without sons. Consequently, God decreed that if a man died without sons, the inheritance should be transferred to his daughter; if he had no daughter, to his brothers; if he had no brothers, to his nearest relatives. This particular incident also illustrates the importance of preserving tribal possessions: the daughters of Zelophehad were not allowed to marry outside the tribe of Manasseh, for this would mean transferral of the property to another tribe (Nm 36).<\/p>\nHow highly the Israelites valued their family’s inherited possessions may be gathered from Leviticus 25:25-28. If an individual sold his land for financial reasons, provision must be made for a relative to redeem it; if he had no near relative, he could still purchase it back at a later time, and even if he could not afford to do so, the land automatically reverted to him in the Year of Jubilee, when all debts were canceled (note also Lv 27:14-25).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from the reference to levirate marriage in Matthew 22:23-33 (Mk 12:18-27; Lk 20:27-40), the NT has little to say about principles of property transferral during Roman times.<\/p>\nIn the parable of the prodigal son, the younger son in the family requested his share of the inheritance (Lk 15:12). One should also note that the elder son, who with false piety looked down on his brother’s behavior, had not protested when his brother asked for the inheritance; on the contrary, the elder brother too, without complaining, received his share—presumably a double portion.<\/p>\nIn another significant passage (Gal 4:1-2) Paul, seeking to illustrate a theological point, refers to secular practices. An heir, he tells us, is subject to guardians and managers during his childhood, up to the time he actually inherits. The point Paul wants to establish is clear enough, but the illustration does not coincide with what we know of Roman law and unfortunately scholars have been unable to identify the precise social custom in view. It may be that Paul was making reference, in general rather than strict legal terms, to some practice with which he and the Galatians were familiar.<\/p>\nTheological Aspect<\/p>\n<h5>Canaan as Israel’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nThe conviction that God gave Palestine to the Israelites for their inheritance serves as a bridge between the historical and the theological data. The historical element lies in the obvious fact that the Promised Land, a physical entity, was certainly occupied by the Hebrews and distributed among their tribes. Theologically, however, the Scriptures speak of this occupation as a divine gift; in effect, even the method of distribution was based on the concept that the land belongs to God (Lv 25:23; see Ex 15:17; Jos 22:27; Ez 38:16; Jl 1:6).<\/p>\nThe theme goes back to Genesis 12:1-3. God, in choosing Abraham, instructed him to move to a new country and promised to make him a great and blessed nation (Heb 11:8). The significance of the land in this Abrahamic promise is made more explicit later, when we are told that God promised to give Canaan to Abraham’s descendants after four centuries of Egyptian bondage (Gn 15:12-21; see Acts 7:5).<\/p>\nSince Canaan was occupied by wicked inhabitants, the land was to be taken by force; to inherit the land therefore really means to take possession<\/em> of it. Israel must trust God, whose land it is, to give them the victory (Jos 1:1-9; 21:43-45; Jgs 7:2; Ps 44:1-3; Acts 13:19). Once they conquered the land, it was apportioned among the tribes according to their size (following the instructions in Nm 26:52-54). God further commanded the people to divide the land by lot (vv 55-56). Thus, from the initial promise to Abraham, to the actual apportionment of the land and even with reference to the future (Is 60:21; Ez 45:1-8; 47:13–48:29), the people were made fully aware that their inheritance lay in the hands of a sovereign Lord.<\/p>\n<h5>The Believer’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nIn the OT we find the concept of inheritance transferred from the purely physical to the spiritual. The tribe of Levi, which constituted the priestly clan, received no inheritance, because “the Lord is their inheritance” (Dt 18:1-2; see Nm 18:8-24). The Levites, in other words, received no land apportionment, but in their service to God they could begin to enjoy the fuller blessings to which the land inheritance pointed.<\/p>\nThat this truth could not be restricted to Levites is hinted at in Exodus 19:6, where the whole nation is called “a kingdom of priests” (see 1 Pt 2:9). Psalm 16 makes it clear that no one understood more clearly than David what those words entailed. Even if he were deprived of Israel’s physical inheritance, he had received by lot a more beautiful heritage, the Lord himself, in whose presence he found full joy and everlasting pleasures (Ps 16:5-6, 11; see also Pss 73:25-26; 142:5; Is 58:14; Lam 3:24).<\/p>\nIn later Judaism, during and after the intertestamental period, the figure was extended considerably. For example, the rabbis began to speak of the law as the inheritance of the faithful. Further, they might give the idea a negative turn, as when the wicked are said to inherit hell (cf. Jb 27:13). Neither of these figures is found in the NT.<\/p>\nWe also read in Jewish literature statements about inheriting the age to come, the kingdom, eternal life; these ideas occur frequently in the NT (Mt 19:29; 25:34; Lk 10:25; 18:18; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; Ti 3:7; Jas 2:5). Such an inheritance, however, belongs only to those who are sanctified by God’s word (Acts 20:32; 26:18; Col 1:12; note also Jn 17:17; Col 3:23-24). These future blessings do not exclude the physical (Mt 5:5; note Ps 37:11, 29; Is 60:21; Rom 4:13; 2 Pt 3:13), but they certainly exclude human frailty, for God’s inheritance is imperishable (1 Cor 15:50). In short, our heritage is nothing less than full salvation (Heb 1:14; 11:7), which God carefully guards for us in heaven (1 Pt 1:4).<\/p>\nDoubtless, the most significant feature in the NT is its emphasis that, as a result of the work of Christ, his people begin even now<\/em> to receive the promised inheritance. The Gospel of John frequently stresses the present reality of eternal life, as does the Letter to the Hebrews (cf. 6:12-17 with 9:15 and 11:13, 39-40).<\/p>\nPaul treats this whole matter thoroughly in Galatians 3:7–4:7. In response to the Judaizers, who claim that the Abrahamic inheritance is restricted to those who become Jews through circumcision, Paul argues vigorously that Abraham’s true children are those who believe, whether Jew or Gentile (3:7; see Acts 26:16-18; Eph 3:6). They become heirs of God’s promise, for they receive the Spirit (Gal 3:14). The principle of inheritance is promise, not the Law (v 18). Those who believe are brought into union with Christ (vv 27-29); but then they are not merely Abraham’s children but God’s (v 26), for Christ is the Son of God and God has determined to send the Spirit of his Son to believers so that they too may call God Father<\/em> (Gal 4:4-7; see also Rom 8:15-16).<\/p>\nIndeed, Christ himself as the Son is the true heir (Mt 21:38; Mk 12:7; Lk 20:14); he has inherited a name above every name (Phil 2:9; Heb 1:4) and has been appointed heir of all things (Heb 1:2; see Ps 2:7-8; Mt 28:18). But by his grace, all who become his through faith are counted joint heirs with him (Rom 8:17).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Inheritance<\/h5>\nWith a bold shift in the metaphor, the Scriptures speak of believers as God’s inheritance. In the beautiful “Song of Moses” the author speaks of God as the Israelites’ Father (Dt 32:6), who has taken special interest in their inheritance (v 8). Then we are told why God cares: “For the Lord<\/span>’s portion is his people, Jacob his allotted inheritance” (Dt 32:9, niv<\/span>). This theme becomes very prominent throughout the OT (e.g., Dt 9:26-29; 1 Kgs 8:51-53; Pss 28:9; 33:12; 74:2; Is 19:25; Jer 10:16; Zec 2:12). Elsewhere, Israel is spoken of as God’s special possession (e.g., Ex 19:5; Dt 7:6).<\/p>\nIn Ephesians 1:14 “the redemption of the possession” refers to the final salvation of believers, who are God’s treasure. Further, “we have obtained an inheritance” (Eph 1:11) may well be translated, “we have been made an inheritance,” that is, been “chosen as God’s portion,” a view supported by verse 18. No more fundamental idea than this can be found in Scripture, and its essence is expressed by the words of the One who sits on the throne: “He who conquers shall have this heritage, and I will be his God and he shall be my son” (Rv 21:7, rsv<\/span>; see Lv 26:11-12; 2 Sm 7:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adoption; Birthright; Firstborn; Heir.<\/p>","summary_ro":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","summary_en":"INHERITANCE Legacy or bequest. Inheritance plays an unusually significant role in the Scriptures when it is used to convey theological truths. As we might expect, these theological applications reflect legal customs in force during OT and NT times. Legal and Historical Aspect The Patriarchs We learn something of early-second-millennium BC practices from the patriarchal stories in Genesis. For example, the narrative indicates that the firstborn could normally expect to receive the birthright. ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20380,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"John the Baptist","title_en":"John the Baptist","content_ro":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\nForerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n• The Disciples of John<\/p>\nBirth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\nLuke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\nThere existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\nJohn’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\nAppearance and Identity<\/p>\nMark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\nThe unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\nWho did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\nJohn’s Proclamation<\/p>\nJohn’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\nIn light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nJohn’s Baptism<\/p>\nThe Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\nWhat was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\nAnother precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\nIf John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\nJohn’s View of Jesus<\/p>\nThroughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\nIn light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\nJesus’ View of John<\/p>\nThat Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\nJohn’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\nArrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\nTo understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\nThe Disciples of John<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\nWe know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\nAfter his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOHN THE BAPTIST<\/h3>\nForerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD<\/span> 29, while Jesus was still ministering.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\n• Appearance and Identity<\/p>\n• John’s Proclamation<\/p>\n• John’s Baptism<\/p>\n• John’s View of Jesus<\/p>\n• Jesus’ View of John<\/p>\n• Arrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\n• The Disciples of John<\/p>\nBirth, Infancy, and Boyhood<\/p>\nLuke’s Gospel is our only source of information concerning the birth and boyhood of John. The Gospel writer states that John was born in the hill country of Judah (Lk 1:39) of priestly descent, being the son of Zechariah, a priest of the order of Abijah, and Elizabeth, a descendant of Aaron (v 5). Both parents were righteous in the sight of God, following all the commandments closely (v 6). Like the birth of Jesus, only to a much lesser degree, the birth of John the Baptist is described in Luke as extraordinary. The angel Gabriel announced the coming birth to Zechariah in the temple; to the older, barren Elizabeth it came as an answer to prayer (vv 8-13). John’s name is announced to Zechariah by the angel, even as his purpose as forerunner is revealed before birth (vv 13-17). Such a consecration from birth is reminiscent of the call of the OT prophet Jeremiah (cf. Jer 1:5).<\/p>\nThere existed some familial relationship between the families of John and Jesus. Elizabeth is described as a relative of Mary (Lk 1:36), which may connote cousin or aunt, or may only mean being from the same tribe.<\/p>\nJohn’s childhood, as that of Jesus, is left quite vague in the Gospel account. All that is said is that “John grew up and became strong in spirit. Then he lived out in the wilderness until he began his public ministry to Israel” (Lk 1:80, nlt<\/span>). Some scholars have suggested that John might have been adopted as a boy by the Essenes (as was their practice) at Qumran and reared in their wilderness community, adjacent to the Dead Sea and near the Jordan River. There are some similarities between the activities of the Qumran sect, known through the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the later ministry of John the Baptist. Both practiced a type of asceticism and removed themselves from the life of Jerusalem. Both practiced baptism and associated this rite with initiation and repentance. Finally, John and the Qumran group were both eschatologically minded, awaiting God’s final end-time activity in history. Nevertheless, many significant differences exist between John and the Qumran sect.<\/p>\nAppearance and Identity<\/p>\nMark’s Gospel begins with an account of John the Baptist’s appearance: “John the Baptist . . . lived in the wilderness and was preaching that people should be baptized to show that they had turned from their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Mk 1:4, nlt<\/span>). A rich OT background lies behind John’s association with the wilderness, in this case the wilderness of Judea. It was in the wilderness that God revealed himself to Moses (Ex 3), gave the law, and entered into the covenant with Israel (ch 19). It was also the site of refuge for David (1 Sm 23–26; Ps 63) and Elijah (1 Kgs 19), and in this light became the anticipated site of God’s future deliverance (Is 40:3-5; Ez 47:1-12; Hos 2:14-15).<\/p>\nThe unusual dress of John the Baptist—“clothing made of camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist” (Mk 1:6, niv<\/span>)—may have suggested to his audience an association with Elijah in particular (2 Kgs 1:8) or with the prophets in general (Zec 13:4). His diet, “locusts and wild honey” (Mk 1:6), was Levitically clean, reflecting one who lived off the desert (such food was also eaten at Qumran) and formed part of the broader asceticism practiced by John and his disciples (Mt 9:14; 11:18).<\/p>\nWho did John understand himself to be? In answer to questions by the multitude whether he was the Messiah, Elijah, or the expected prophet (Jn 1:20-23), John only identified himself as “a voice crying in the wilderness, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord’ ” (Is 40:3). The background for the question lies at the end of the OT period. Prophecy, on the one hand, was considered to have ceased (Zec 13:2-6); yet, on the other hand, it was expected to appear again before the coming of the messianic kingdom (see Jl 2:28-29; Mal 3:1-4). Some anticipated this final prophet to be one who was like Moses (Dt 18:15), others a returning Elijah as foretold in Malachi 4:5-6. While John personally refrained from identifying himself with these specific expectations (Jn 1:20-23), it is clear that his dress, lifestyle, and message caused the people to identify him with this end-time prophet (Mt 14:5; Mk 11:32). Jesus also saw John as this final “Elijah-like” prophet (Mt 11:7-15), who from Malachi’s prophecy was to be a forerunner to the coming of the Lord (Mal 3:1-4; 4:5-6).<\/p>\nJohn’s Proclamation<\/p>\nJohn’s proclamation involved three elements: a warning of imminent judgment at the hands of the Coming One, a call for repentance in light of the coming kingdom of heaven, and a demand to express this repentance in concrete ethical terms. Many Jews looked forward confidently to the messianic judgment as a time of blessing for themselves and destruction for the gentile oppressors. John, however, warned that Jewish ancestry was false security in the coming judgment (Lk 3:8); true repentance was the only means of escaping destruction (Mt 3:2). John anticipated this judgment at the hands of the Coming One, who would baptize the nation with “the Holy Spirit and with fire” (Lk 3:16). Fire represented the OT means of destruction in the end time (Mal 4:1) as well as purification (Mal 3:1-4), while the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the end time connoted blessing (Is 32:15; Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28) and purification (Is 4:2-4). The judgment anticipated by John was therefore twofold: destruction for the unrepentant, and blessing for the penitent and righteous (Mt 3:12).<\/p>\nIn light of this imminent event John called for repentance on the part of his listeners (Mt 3:2), a true “turning back” or “turning toward” God in obedience that would bring forgiveness of sin. Such a turnabout in an individual’s relation with God should be lived out in one’s everyday dealings: fairness on the part of tax collectors (Lk 3:12-13) and soldiers (v 14), and the general requirement of compassion for the poor (vv 10-11).<\/p>\nJohn’s Baptism<\/p>\nThe Gospels record that John baptized those repentant of their sins at several locations: the Jordan River (Mk 1:5), Bethany beyond the Jordan (Jn 1:28), and Aenon near Salim (Jn 3:23). This practice was an integral part of John’s call for repentance, given in light of the approaching judgment and the appearance of the Coming One. The baptism of the penitent symbolized desire for forgiveness of sin, a renunciation of past life, and a desire to be included in the coming messianic kingdom.<\/p>\nWhat was the background for John’s practice of baptism? From the OT we know of ceremonial lustrations or washings that guaranteed ritual purity (Lv 14–15; Nm 19). Unlike John’s baptism, these washings were repetitive in nature and referred predominantly to ritual rather than moral cleansing. The prophets, however, urged a moral purification associated with the washing of water (Is 1:16-18; Jer 4:14). More significantly, the prophets anticipated a cleansing by God in the end times preceding the Day of Judgment (Ez 36:25; Zec 13:1; cf. Is 44:3), an eschatological element that John may have assumed was being fulfilled in his water baptism.<\/p>\nAnother precedent for John’s practice may have been proselyte baptism, a rite (along with circumcision and the offering of sacrifices) that constituted the conversion of a Gentile to Judaism. Common to both proselyte baptism and John’s baptism were the emphasis on an ethical break with the past, a once-for-all character, and the similarity of immersion. Notable differences were that John’s baptism was for Jews, not Gentile converts, and that it had a marked eschatological character as a preparation for the new age. Unless John, in light of the imminence of the messianic age, consciously treated all Jews as “pagan” in need of a baptism of repentance (cf. Mt 3:7-10), it is doubtful that proselyte baptism formed the primary background for John’s baptismal ministry.<\/p>\nIf John’s baptism had a clear association with the forgiveness of sin, the question naturally arises as to why Jesus, the Son of God, sought baptism from John. John himself asks this very question of Jesus (Mt 3:14), to which Jesus responds, “It must be done, because we must do everything that is right” (v 15, nlt<\/span>). First, it is clear that Jesus’ baptism represented an act of obedience on his part to God’s will as he saw it. Second, by submitting to the baptism of John, Jesus was clearly validating the ministry and message of John. The imminent coming of the kingdom and its Messiah, and the need for repentance in anticipation of this event that John proclaimed, were affirmed by Jesus through baptism. Third, by being baptized, Jesus condemned the self-righteous for their lack of repentance and took a stand with the penitent publicans and sinners awaiting the kingdom of God (Lk 7:29-30). Fourth, Jesus stepped forward for baptism not as an individual in need of forgiveness but as one who represented the people of God. His baptism, therefore, demonstrated solidarity with the people in their need of deliverance, even as he is judged in their place on the cross. Finally, the voice from heaven (Mk 1:11) and the descent of the Spirit (Lk 3:21-22) signify the inauguration of Jesus’ own ministry through his baptism by John.<\/p>\nJohn’s View of Jesus<\/p>\nThroughout his ministry John pointed beyond himself to one “who is far greater than I am—so much greater that I am not even worthy to be his slave” (Mk 1:7, nlt<\/span>). His self-understanding apparently sprang from the application of Isaiah 40:3 to himself, that he was the preparer or forerunner for God’s coming activity through the Messiah (Lk 3:4-6). When asked by curious spectators, John firmly denied that he was the Messiah, and according to the Gospel accounts, subordinated himself to the Coming One (Mk 1:7-8; Jn 1:26-28; 3:28-31). The coming of Jesus to baptism seems to represent the first time John identified these expectations with Jesus himself (Jn 1:35-36). His recognition of Jesus as the Messiah prior to baptism (Mt 3:14) was confirmed by the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove and the voice from heaven quoting a phrase from an OT messianic psalm (Mk 1:11a, from Ps 2:7), together with a phrase from a Suffering Servant song of Isaiah (Mk 1:11b, from Is 42:1). In the fourth Gospel, John the Baptist goes even further in acknowledging Jesus to be the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:29), in anticipation of Jesus’ sacrificial role on the cross. And John recognized him as “God’s Chosen One” (v 34, neb<\/span>—another term for the Messiah; Ps 2:7, see Mk 1:11).<\/p>\nIn light of John’s strong affirmation, it is at first difficult to understand his questioning of Jesus while imprisoned: “Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?” (Mt 11:3, rsv<\/span>). Some have suggested that John was merely asking for the sake of his disciples, or that the question reflected John’s despondency with being imprisoned. It is more likely, however, that the question represents John’s own confusion with the activity expected of the Messiah. John had proclaimed a Coming One who would bring a baptism of fire and judgment upon the wicked (Lk 3:16). It may have been difficult for him to understand Jesus’ different emphases on forgiveness and acceptance of sinners (Mt 9:9-13) and his healing of the sick (Mt 8–9). When John’s disciples brought their master’s question to Jesus, asking whether or not he was the Messiah, Jesus responded by quoting Isaiah 35:5-6 (see also Is 61:1). This text proclaims the activities of healing and proclaiming salvation to the poor to be fulfillments of the Messiah’s role, even though they may not have been what John or countless other Jews expected.<\/p>\nJesus’ View of John<\/p>\nThat Jesus highly regarded John the Baptist is indicated by his baptism by John. It is also explicitly stated on several occasions. Jesus called him the greatest man to have ever lived (Lk 7:28). (Of course, he was not as great as Jesus, the God-man.) Jesus also said that John was a burning and shining lamp (Jn 5:33-35) and that he practiced a baptism divinely ordained (Lk 20:1-8).<\/p>\nJohn’s uniqueness, however, lies in the fact that he stood at the turning of the ages. He was the last of the old era, the period of the law and the prophets (Lk 16:16), which was to precede the coming of the messianic age (the kingdom of God). John was the last of the prophets, the greatest of them, the Elijah figure who would prepare the way for the judgment of God (Mt 11:13-15; Lk 1:17). Because John belonged to the era of the law and the prophets, however, he was not as great as the “least” already in the kingdom of God (Mt 11:11)—that is, those who belonged to the era of the kingdom’s appearance in Jesus.<\/p>\nArrest, Imprisonment, and Martyrdom<\/p>\nTo understand why John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas, one has to grasp the messianic excitement caused by John’s appearance and message (Lk 3:15-18). Herod and other secular rulers were obviously suspicious of anyone who might stir up the crowds with predictions of a coming messianic ruler. Other messianic movements had arisen before John, which resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Roman-Herodian rulership. Moreover, Herod Antipas was under heavy criticism for his marriage with Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother Philip. His first marriage, with the daughter of Aretus II, constituted a political alliance between the Herodian family and the Nabatean kingdom of Perea. His new relationship with Herodias was perceived as a breach of the political alliance and led to friction between the two families. John’s denunciation of Herod’s new marriage (Mt 14:3-12) could thus have been interpreted by Herod as a subversive rousing of sentiment against his authority. The Jewish historian Josephus states that Herod did, in fact, arrest John because he feared John’s influence over the crowds. According to Josephus, John was imprisoned at the fortress Machaerus on the eastern side of the Dead Sea. That he was not killed immediately was due to Herod’s personal fear of the righteous John (Mk 6:2) and of the people’s reaction (Mt 14:5). On a point about which Josephus is silent, the Gospels record that it was Herodias’s feelings against John (Mk 6:17) and her plot, through the dancing of her daughter, which brought about the beheading of John (vv 21-29). John was beheaded at Herodias’s request in approximately AD<\/span> 29 or 30.<\/p>\nThe Disciples of John<\/p>\nWhile it is clear that a band of disciples formed around John in his lifetime (Jn 1:35), to suggest that he intended to begin a continuing movement is contradicted by his message on the imminent Day of Judgment. Apparently, John’s disciples consisted of a small group of those who had been baptized by him and were awaiting the coming Messiah. Some transferred their loyalty to Jesus after John had identified Jesus as the Coming One (Jn 1:37). Others, however, apparently stayed on with their teacher, communicating with the imprisoned John concerning the activities of Jesus (Lk 7:18-23) and, after his death, taking the body for burial (Mk 6:29).<\/p>\nWe know little about the activities and practices of the band of disciples clustered around John. We do know, however, that fasting was one practice specifically associated with the group, and one that marked them as similar to the Pharisees (Mt 9:14). In this practice they no doubt followed the example of John himself (Lk 7:33). Prayer and fasting were often linked in late Judaism. The disciples of John were also known for the prayers taught by their master (11:1). Seeing this practice, the disciples of Jesus asked the Lord to teach them to pray, to which Jesus responded with the Lord’s Prayer (vv 2-4).<\/p>\nAfter his death it is likely that other disciples of John joined the followers of Jesus (see Lk 7:29-30). Not all did so, however, as disciples of John were encountered by Paul and other Christians approximately 25 years later in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–29:7). Upon hearing witness to Jesus, these followers of John proclaimed Jesus as Messiah. When Paul baptized them in the name of Jesus they received the Holy Spirit (19:4-7). Even so, it is apparent from later documents that various groups continued to honor John, even considering him the Messiah, centuries after the NT period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","summary_en":"JOHN THE BAPTIST Forerunner of the Messiah who prepared the people for Jesus’ coming, proclaimed the need for forgiveness of sins, and offered a baptism symbolizing repentance. His ministry included the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River, where he testified to Jesus being the Expected One from God. John was arrested and beheaded by Herod Antipas in approximately AD 29, while Jesus was still ministering. Preview • Birth, Infancy, and Boyhood • Appearance and Identity • John’s Proclamation • ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35783,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Son of God","title_en":"Son of God","content_ro":"<h3>SON OF GOD<\/h3>\nTerm used to express the deity of Jesus of Nazareth as the unique divine Son.<\/p>\nJesus’ unique sonship is antithetical to concepts of sonship popular in the ancient world. In Hellenism, people believed a man could be a “son of the gods” in many ways: in mythology, by cohabitation of a god with a woman whose offspring was imagined to be superhuman; in politics, by giving generals and emperors high honors in the cult of Roman emperor worship; in medicine, by calling a doctor “son of Asclepius”; and eventually by ascribing to anyone with mysterious powers or qualities the title or reputation of “divine man.”<\/p>\nThe Term in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the OT, certain men who lived before the time of Noah (Gn 6:1-4), “the angels” (including Satan, Jb 1:6; 2:1), and other heavenly beings (Pss 29:1; 82:6; 89:6, rsv<\/span> mg) are called “sons of God.” Israel as a people was the chosen son of God. This corporate sonship became the basis of Israel’s redemption from Egypt: “Israel is my first-born son” (Ex 4:22; cf. Jer 31:9). Corporate sonship was the context for focus on personal sonship in the divine sanction of David as king: “I will be his father, and he will be my son” (2 Sm 7:14). David’s “adoptive” sonship was by divine decree: “I will proclaim the decree: . . . ‘You are my son; today I have become your Father’ ” (Ps 2:7); and it was the prophetic prototype of the “essential” sonship of Jesus, David’s royal son (Mt 3:17; Mk 1:11; Lk 3:22; Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5). Other messianic prophecies ascribe divine names to the Davidic Messiah: “Immanuel” (Is 7:13-14) and “Mighty God, Everlasting Father” (Is 9:6-7). These are fulfilled in Jesus (Mt 1:23; 21:4-10; 22:41-45).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as the Son of God is revealed in the Gospels in three distinct ways.<\/p>\nThe first is his eternal, personal sonship.<\/em> Jesus’ personal sonship is revealed in Peter’s confession, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Mt 16:16) and in Jesus’ identification of himself at his trial: “ ‘Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?’ . . . ‘I am,’ said Jesus” (Mk 14:61-62). In both instances, the issue is his personal being or essence, his eternal identity.<\/p>\nLong before Creation, even from eternity, the Father and the Son enjoyed fellowship with each other. We know this because the Bible tells us so—but not in any great detail. For the most part, the Scriptures are silent about the premundane scene. And yet there are a few verses that lift the veil slightly and give us a glimpse into that sublime, divine relationship that always existed between the Father and the Son.<\/p>\nOf all the books in the Bible, the Gospel of John has the most to say about the relationship between the Father and the Son. It is from John’s inspired pen that we read from the outset, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” This is a rather flat rendering. The Greek conveys something more picturesque: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was face to face with God, and the Word was himself God.” Imagine, the Word, who was the preincarnate Son of God, was face to face with God. The expression “face to face” translates the Greek preposition pros<\/span> (short for prosopon pros prosopon<\/span>,<\/em> “face to face,” a common expression in koine Greek.) The expression signifies intimate fellowship. The Father and Son enjoyed such an intimate fellowship from eternity. How they must have delighted in each other!<\/p>\nAfter the Son of God became a man and began his ministry on earth, he referred to the relationship he enjoyed with the Father before the foundation of the world. Jesus spoke of what he had seen and heard together with the Father before coming to earth (see John 3:13 and 8:38). Jesus longed to return to that glorious sphere. In his prayer before going to the cross (in ch 17), he asked the Father to glorify him with the glory he had with the Father before the world was (v 5). Jesus wanted to recapture his primordial equality with the Father—something he had willingly relinquished for the sake of his Father’s plan (see Phil 2:6-7). As he prayed to the Father, a wonderful utterance escaped from his lips: “Father, . . . you loved me before the foundation of the world” (Jn 17:24). God’s Son, the unique Son, was the single object of the Father’s love.<\/p>\nThe second aspect of Jesus’ sonship is his nativity sonship.<\/em> The nativity of Jesus is traced to the direct, spiritual paternity of God. Jesus is the Son of God because his incarnation and birth into the human race was created by the Holy Spirit. In Matthew, Jesus’ conception “is of the Holy Spirit” (Mt 1:20). He is to be named “Jesus” (meaning Yahweh is salvation) “because he will save his people from their sins” (v 21), and “Immanuel” (God with us) because he is himself the Son of God in human flesh (v 23). In Luke, Jesus’ conception was by the Holy Spirit and the power of the Most High (Lk 1:31, 35), so Jesus was called “the Son of God” (v 35). If the father of Jesus had been the man Joseph, he would have been called “Jesus, the son of Joseph.” Luke’s teaching clearly means that since the Spirit of God was the father of Jesus, this son of the virgin Mary is properly called “Jesus, the Son of God.”<\/p>\nThe third aspect is his messianic sonship.<\/em> Jesus is the Father’s Son and representative, whose earthly mission is to establish the kingdom of God. At his baptism, he began his mission with the Father’s coronation: “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased” (Mt 3:17; cf. Ps 2:7). Jesus received a similar pronouncement from heaven at his Transfiguration (Lk 9:35). As the messianic Son, Jesus perfectly completed the redeeming work given him to do by his Father.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament Epistles<\/p>\nPaul spoke of the essential, ontological sonship of Jesus—not as an isolated fact, but in the context of his redemptive work. It was as God’s Son that Jesus took human nature (Rom 1:3) and as “the Son of God” that he was resurrected and enthroned in power (Mt 28:18; Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 15:28). The Incarnation is spoken of as “God sending his own Son” (Rom 8:3; Gal 4:4) for humanity’s redemption, a redemption that was accomplished “through the death of his Son” (Rom 5:10; 8:29, 32). As a consequence, believers can have “fellowship with his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Cor 1:9), and they can live by faith in “the Son of God” (Gal 2:20). Paul’s first preaching was “that Jesus is the Son of God” (Acts 9:20); this was later expounded by Paul in the light of Psalm 2:7 (see Acts 13:33).<\/p>\nIn Hebrews, Jesus is “the Son,” who is God’s “firstborn” and personal “heir,” who is creator and sustainer of the universe, and who is the “radiance of God’s glory” (Heb 1:2-12; 3:6; 5:5). As the Son, he is the final and eternal High Priest who ascended to heaven and whose mediatorial work remains perfect forever (4:14; 6:6; 7:3, 28). In 1 John 4 and 5, belief in Jesus as the incarnate Son of God is essential for salvation; disbelief comes from the spirit of the Antichrist.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; Jesus Christ, Teachings of; Messiah; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SON OF GOD<\/h3>\nTerm used to express the deity of Jesus of Nazareth as the unique divine Son.<\/p>\nJesus’ unique sonship is antithetical to concepts of sonship popular in the ancient world. In Hellenism, people believed a man could be a “son of the gods” in many ways: in mythology, by cohabitation of a god with a woman whose offspring was imagined to be superhuman; in politics, by giving generals and emperors high honors in the cult of Roman emperor worship; in medicine, by calling a doctor “son of Asclepius”; and eventually by ascribing to anyone with mysterious powers or qualities the title or reputation of “divine man.”<\/p>\nThe Term in the Old Testament<\/p>\nIn the OT, certain men who lived before the time of Noah (Gn 6:1-4), “the angels” (including Satan, Jb 1:6; 2:1), and other heavenly beings (Pss 29:1; 82:6; 89:6, rsv<\/span> mg) are called “sons of God.” Israel as a people was the chosen son of God. This corporate sonship became the basis of Israel’s redemption from Egypt: “Israel is my first-born son” (Ex 4:22; cf. Jer 31:9). Corporate sonship was the context for focus on personal sonship in the divine sanction of David as king: “I will be his father, and he will be my son” (2 Sm 7:14). David’s “adoptive” sonship was by divine decree: “I will proclaim the decree: . . . ‘You are my son; today I have become your Father’ ” (Ps 2:7); and it was the prophetic prototype of the “essential” sonship of Jesus, David’s royal son (Mt 3:17; Mk 1:11; Lk 3:22; Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5). Other messianic prophecies ascribe divine names to the Davidic Messiah: “Immanuel” (Is 7:13-14) and “Mighty God, Everlasting Father” (Is 9:6-7). These are fulfilled in Jesus (Mt 1:23; 21:4-10; 22:41-45).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as the Son of God is revealed in the Gospels in three distinct ways.<\/p>\nThe first is his eternal, personal sonship.<\/em> Jesus’ personal sonship is revealed in Peter’s confession, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Mt 16:16) and in Jesus’ identification of himself at his trial: “ ‘Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?’ . . . ‘I am,’ said Jesus” (Mk 14:61-62). In both instances, the issue is his personal being or essence, his eternal identity.<\/p>\nLong before Creation, even from eternity, the Father and the Son enjoyed fellowship with each other. We know this because the Bible tells us so—but not in any great detail. For the most part, the Scriptures are silent about the premundane scene. And yet there are a few verses that lift the veil slightly and give us a glimpse into that sublime, divine relationship that always existed between the Father and the Son.<\/p>\nOf all the books in the Bible, the Gospel of John has the most to say about the relationship between the Father and the Son. It is from John’s inspired pen that we read from the outset, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” This is a rather flat rendering. The Greek conveys something more picturesque: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was face to face with God, and the Word was himself God.” Imagine, the Word, who was the preincarnate Son of God, was face to face with God. The expression “face to face” translates the Greek preposition pros<\/span> (short for prosopon pros prosopon<\/span>,<\/em> “face to face,” a common expression in koine Greek.) The expression signifies intimate fellowship. The Father and Son enjoyed such an intimate fellowship from eternity. How they must have delighted in each other!<\/p>\nAfter the Son of God became a man and began his ministry on earth, he referred to the relationship he enjoyed with the Father before the foundation of the world. Jesus spoke of what he had seen and heard together with the Father before coming to earth (see John 3:13 and 8:38). Jesus longed to return to that glorious sphere. In his prayer before going to the cross (in ch 17), he asked the Father to glorify him with the glory he had with the Father before the world was (v 5). Jesus wanted to recapture his primordial equality with the Father—something he had willingly relinquished for the sake of his Father’s plan (see Phil 2:6-7). As he prayed to the Father, a wonderful utterance escaped from his lips: “Father, . . . you loved me before the foundation of the world” (Jn 17:24). God’s Son, the unique Son, was the single object of the Father’s love.<\/p>\nThe second aspect of Jesus’ sonship is his nativity sonship.<\/em> The nativity of Jesus is traced to the direct, spiritual paternity of God. Jesus is the Son of God because his incarnation and birth into the human race was created by the Holy Spirit. In Matthew, Jesus’ conception “is of the Holy Spirit” (Mt 1:20). He is to be named “Jesus” (meaning Yahweh is salvation) “because he will save his people from their sins” (v 21), and “Immanuel” (God with us) because he is himself the Son of God in human flesh (v 23). In Luke, Jesus’ conception was by the Holy Spirit and the power of the Most High (Lk 1:31, 35), so Jesus was called “the Son of God” (v 35). If the father of Jesus had been the man Joseph, he would have been called “Jesus, the son of Joseph.” Luke’s teaching clearly means that since the Spirit of God was the father of Jesus, this son of the virgin Mary is properly called “Jesus, the Son of God.”<\/p>\nThe third aspect is his messianic sonship.<\/em> Jesus is the Father’s Son and representative, whose earthly mission is to establish the kingdom of God. At his baptism, he began his mission with the Father’s coronation: “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased” (Mt 3:17; cf. Ps 2:7). Jesus received a similar pronouncement from heaven at his Transfiguration (Lk 9:35). As the messianic Son, Jesus perfectly completed the redeeming work given him to do by his Father.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament Epistles<\/p>\nPaul spoke of the essential, ontological sonship of Jesus—not as an isolated fact, but in the context of his redemptive work. It was as God’s Son that Jesus took human nature (Rom 1:3) and as “the Son of God” that he was resurrected and enthroned in power (Mt 28:18; Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 15:28). The Incarnation is spoken of as “God sending his own Son” (Rom 8:3; Gal 4:4) for humanity’s redemption, a redemption that was accomplished “through the death of his Son” (Rom 5:10; 8:29, 32). As a consequence, believers can have “fellowship with his Son, Jesus Christ our Lord” (1 Cor 1:9), and they can live by faith in “the Son of God” (Gal 2:20). Paul’s first preaching was “that Jesus is the Son of God” (Acts 9:20); this was later expounded by Paul in the light of Psalm 2:7 (see Acts 13:33).<\/p>\nIn Hebrews, Jesus is “the Son,” who is God’s “firstborn” and personal “heir,” who is creator and sustainer of the universe, and who is the “radiance of God’s glory” (Heb 1:2-12; 3:6; 5:5). As the Son, he is the final and eternal High Priest who ascended to heaven and whose mediatorial work remains perfect forever (4:14; 6:6; 7:3, 28). In 1 John 4 and 5, belief in Jesus as the incarnate Son of God is essential for salvation; disbelief comes from the spirit of the Antichrist.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Christology; Jesus Christ, Teachings of; Messiah; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SON OF GOD Term used to express the deity of Jesus of Nazareth as the unique divine Son. Jesus’ unique sonship is antithetical to concepts of sonship popular in the ancient world. In Hellenism, people believed a man could be a “son of the gods” in many ways: in mythology, by cohabitation of a god with a woman whose offspring was imagined to be superhuman; in politics, by giving generals and emperors high honors in the cult of Roman emperor worship; in medicine, by calling a doctor “son of Asc...","summary_en":"SON OF GOD Term used to express the deity of Jesus of Nazareth as the unique divine Son. Jesus’ unique sonship is antithetical to concepts of sonship popular in the ancient world. In Hellenism, people believed a man could be a “son of the gods” in many ways: in mythology, by cohabitation of a god with a woman whose offspring was imagined to be superhuman; in politics, by giving generals and emperors high honors in the cult of Roman emperor worship; in medicine, by calling a doctor “son of Asc...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40172,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”?","title_en":"Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”?","content_ro":"<h3>Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”?<\/h3>\n<blockquote>The phrase “only begotten” is not an accurate translation and should not be used in any of the nine passages noted above. This phrase is derived from the Latin Vulgate (a translation of the Bible from about the fifth century that has been quite influential on other translations) and reflects certain theological debates about the person of Christ. While the language of the Word being born of God is present in the second century, the most notable occurrence of this language is the creed from the Council of Nicaea in AD<\/span> 325. This creed speaks of the Son of God as begotten of the Father, unique—that is, from the substance of the Father—God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten and not made, of one substance with the Father. This creed was the result of the rejection of the heresy that the Son of God was the first created being. Ultimately, the phrase “begotten, not made” leads to what theologians call the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son. It is an attempt to say that the Son is derived from the Father but that he is eternal with the Father. However, this discussion is an attempt to explain the mystery of the Trinity and goes far beyond the biblical text.<\/p><\/blockquote>\nWhether there is any biblical passage that speaks of the Son being born from the Father is doubtful at best. The use of Psalm 2:7 in Acts 13:33, Hebrews 1:5, and 5:5 (“You are my son, today I have begotten you”) refers to the resurrection and exaltation of Christ. The use of “firstborn” (Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6) stresses sovereignty rather than birth. The only text that possibly points to the idea of the Son’s being born from the Father is 1 John 5:18, but the meaning of the words “the one having been born from God” is debated both because of a textual variant and because of the grammar. The words may refer to Christians instead of the Son.<\/p>\nIn the end it must be said that “only begotten” is an incorrect translation. The idea being stressed is the uniqueness of Jesus’ relation to the Father, not any kind of birth per se.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”?<\/h3>\n<blockquote>The phrase “only begotten” is not an accurate translation and should not be used in any of the nine passages noted above. This phrase is derived from the Latin Vulgate (a translation of the Bible from about the fifth century that has been quite influential on other translations) and reflects certain theological debates about the person of Christ. While the language of the Word being born of God is present in the second century, the most notable occurrence of this language is the creed from the Council of Nicaea in AD<\/span> 325. This creed speaks of the Son of God as begotten of the Father, unique—that is, from the substance of the Father—God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten and not made, of one substance with the Father. This creed was the result of the rejection of the heresy that the Son of God was the first created being. Ultimately, the phrase “begotten, not made” leads to what theologians call the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son. It is an attempt to say that the Son is derived from the Father but that he is eternal with the Father. However, this discussion is an attempt to explain the mystery of the Trinity and goes far beyond the biblical text.<\/p><\/blockquote>\nWhether there is any biblical passage that speaks of the Son being born from the Father is doubtful at best. The use of Psalm 2:7 in Acts 13:33, Hebrews 1:5, and 5:5 (“You are my son, today I have begotten you”) refers to the resurrection and exaltation of Christ. The use of “firstborn” (Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6) stresses sovereignty rather than birth. The only text that possibly points to the idea of the Son’s being born from the Father is 1 John 5:18, but the meaning of the words “the one having been born from God” is debated both because of a textual variant and because of the grammar. The words may refer to Christians instead of the Son.<\/p>\nIn the end it must be said that “only begotten” is an incorrect translation. The idea being stressed is the uniqueness of Jesus’ relation to the Father, not any kind of birth per se.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”? The phrase “only begotten” is not an accurate translation and should not be used in any of the nine passages noted above. This phrase is derived from the Latin Vulgate (a translation of the Bible from about the fifth century that has been quite influential on other translations) and reflects certain theological debates about the person of Christ. While the language of the Word being born of God is present in the second century, the most n...","summary_en":"Should Translators Use the Expression “Only Begotten”? The phrase “only begotten” is not an accurate translation and should not be used in any of the nine passages noted above. This phrase is derived from the Latin Vulgate (a translation of the Bible from about the fifth century that has been quite influential on other translations) and reflects certain theological debates about the person of Christ. While the language of the Word being born of God is present in the second century, the most n...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48792,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","content_en":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","summary_en":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48793,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","content_en":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","summary_en":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76418,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","content_en":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","summary_en":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76419,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","content_en":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","summary_en":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104044,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","content_en":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","summary_en":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104045,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","content_en":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","summary_en":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131670,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","content_en":"2:7-9<\/strong> The Lord adopted the king<\/em> of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations<\/em> by force (see 89:26-27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","summary_en":"2:7-9 The Lord adopted the king of David’s dynasty to conquer rebellious nations by force (see 89:26-27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131671,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:7","content_ro":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","content_en":"2:7<\/strong> Today I have become your Father:<\/em> People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","summary_en":"2:7 Today I have become your Father: People in the ancient Near East commonly accepted a father-son relationship between gods and kings. In Israel, the Lord adopted kings as his sons. God set David apart as his most excellent and exalted son (89:27). All descendants of David were the Lord’s representatives or agents. As an eternal member of the Godhead (John 1:1) and a descendant of David (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), Jesus is the true Son of God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65411,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Son of God","title_en":"The Son of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","summary_en":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67800,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93037,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Son of God","title_en":"The Son of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","summary_en":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95426,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120663,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Son of God","title_en":"The Son of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","summary_en":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123052,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148289,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Son of God","title_en":"The Son of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Son of God<\/h3>\nTime and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament, the title “Son of God” is applied to the people of Israel (Exod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6, 18-19; Ps 82:6; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Hos 11:1; Mal 2:10) and to angels (Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps 29:1). It is also applied in a special way to Israel’s king—the anointed king was seen as God’s “son” (2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27). The title also appears in intertestamental Jewish literature (including the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls), possibly in reference to the coming Messiah. Jews in the first century would have likely considered the coming Messiah as a “Son of God.”<\/p>\nJesus’ identity as “the Son of God” was affirmed by God at his baptism (Mark 1:11; Matt 3:17; Luke 3:22) and by demons he encountered during his ministry (Matt 8:29; Mark 1:24; 1:34; 3:11; 5:7; Luke 4:34; 8:28). Later, the disciples recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Matt 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20) and Jesus immediately began to teach them of his forthcoming death (Matt 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22). Then, at Jesus’ transfiguration, God affirmed the disciples’ confession (Matt 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:35). As Jesus approached his death, he affirmed his unique identity as God’s Son, both through his teaching (Mark 12:1-12; 13:32) and at his trial (Mark 14:61-62).<\/p>\nIn the Gospels, the climactic confession of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son took place at the crucifixion, where a Roman centurion became the first human in the narrative to recognize that Jesus is truly the Son of God (Mark 15:39). While Jesus’ identity as the Son of God is demonstrated in his exorcisms and by his Father’s declarations, his sacrificial death and the way he died (Mark 15:33-39) provide the supreme evidence that he is the Son of God.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 4:22; Deut 32:5-6; 2 Sam 7:14; 1 Chr 22:10; 28:6; Pss 2:7; 89:26-27; Jer 3:19; 31:9, 20; Matt 26:63-68; Mark 1:1, 11, 24; 4:35-41; 8:31; 9:7; 12:1-12; 14:61-62; 15:32-39; Luke 1:32-35; 4:41; John 1:18; 3:16-17, 35-36; 5:19-26; 17:5, 24; 20:31; Acts 13:33; Rom 1:4; 5:10; 8:3, 32; 2 Cor 1:19; Gal 2:20; 4:4-5; Eph 4:13; 1 Thes 1:10; Heb 1:2-14; 3:6; 5:5; 1 Jn 1:3; 2:22; 3:23; 4:9-10, 14; 5:20; 2 Jn 1:3, 9; Rev 2:18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","summary_en":"The Son of God Time and again Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, raising of the dead, and teachings created wonder, awe, amazement, and fear (e.g., Mark 1:22, 27; 4:41; 5:15, 20, 33; 7:37; 9:15; 10:24, 26, 32; 12:17; 15:5). This amazement emphasizes the miraculous nature of Jesus’ ministry. The Gospel writers wanted their readers to ask themselves, “Who is this man? . . . Even the wind and waves obey him!” (Matt 8:27; Mark 4:41; Luke 8:25). Mark gives the answer at the very beginning of his Gospel: ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150678,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","title_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Lord as Judge<\/h3>\nThe Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Christ neglect to show mercy (2:13), befriend the world (4:4), sin through speech (4:11; 5:9), or live to satisfy evil desires (4:1, 16), they, too, will be judged by the law that was intended to set them free (2:12).<\/p>\nThe Lord’s future coming influences present realities. God already honors the faithful poor and humiliates the exploitative rich (1:9-10; 5:2-3). Christ’s followers have already become God’s prized possession as God is restoring all things (1:18). James declares that we should obey the royal law of the messianic kingdom (2:8), of which followers of Christ have become heirs (2:5).<\/p>\nThe coming of the Lord may not be immediate, so James exhorts Christians to endure (1:3-4) and wait patiently for Christ’s return (5:7-8). They will receive the crown of eternal life (1:12) and reap the harvest of righteousness sown by a life of faithfulness to God (3:18).<\/p>\nIn view of impending judgment, James exhorts Christ’s followers to resist the devil and to humble themselves before God (4:7). We must grieve over sin, live with pure intentions and behavior (4:8-9), and rescue any Christian brother or sister who is headed toward death (5:19-20). Like Elijah, we must practice faith, prayer, and confession (5:13-18). Like Job, we must endure suffering, discovering in the end the scope of God’s kindness and mercy (4:10; 5:11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Sam 2:10; Pss 2:7-12; 96:11-13; Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3; Matt 16:27; Luke 12:35-48; 18:8; John 5:22-30; Acts 10:42; 1 Cor 4:5; Jas 5:7-9; 1 Jn 2:28<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Lord as Judge The Bible is clear that there will be a day of judgment (Jas 5:3), and the book of James provides followers of Christ with both a warning and a promise regarding that day. James announces the future coming of the Lord as Judge (Jas 5:7-9; cp. Isa 26:21; Mic 1:3). God, who gave the law, is the Judge who has the power to save and destroy (4:12). Those who slander Jesus Christ and oppress his followers will be slaughtered (see 2:6-7; 5:5-6). If those who follow Ch...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":48794,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:8","content_ro":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","summary_en":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76420,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:8","content_ro":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","summary_en":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104046,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:8","content_ro":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","summary_en":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131672,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:8","content_ro":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"2:8<\/strong> In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask<\/em> for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","summary_en":"2:8 In an example of the suzerain-vassal relationship between the Lord and Israel’s king (see Deuteronomy Book Introduction, “Literary Form”), the Lord invites the king to ask for favors (see Ps 21:2, 4). • All nations will be subject to David’s descendant, the Messiah.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66971,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Belonging to Christ","title_en":"Belonging to Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","summary_en":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94597,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Belonging to Christ","title_en":"Belonging to Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","summary_en":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122223,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Belonging to Christ","title_en":"Belonging to Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","summary_en":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149849,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Belonging to Christ","title_en":"Belonging to Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Belonging to Christ<\/h3>\nTo many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if they have that spiritual gift (1 Cor 7:7).<\/p>\nWhat lies behind such an apparently extreme view of life? For Paul, it is the awareness that believers are claimed by Christ and so belong to him, body and soul. When Christ died, he bought them for himself (6:20). They must no longer live simply for themselves and their own desires (2 Cor 5:14-15). Having died to their own personal interests, they are called to live entirely for their Lord (Rom 14:7-9).<\/p>\nFor true Christians, obedience to Christ is not an onerous burden, but a way to express their love and loyalty to the one who died for them. For the people of Christ, the whole of life is to be a joyful expression of thanks for the grace God has shown them in Jesus Christ. They gladly yield their lives to serve the one who gave up everything for them (see 1 Jn 3:16). By dying to themselves, believers make it possible for Christ to live in and through them (Gal 2:19-20).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nDeut 9:26, 29; 32:9; 1 Kgs 8:53; Pss 2:8; 28:9; Ezek 18:4; Mark 8:34-36; 12:30; Rom 14:7-9; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:20-24; 7:32-35; 2 Cor 5:14-15; Gal 2:19-20; 1 Pet 2:9-10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","summary_en":"Belonging to Christ To many modern readers, the New Testament seems to portray an extreme view of the Christian life. Believers are called to forfeit their rights, suffer, and even die for the sake of Christ (Mark 8:34-36). They are to turn away from the things of the world that everybody else lives for (1 Jn 2:15-17) and even to despise their life in this world (John 12:24-25). Paul encourages believers to give up the normal desires for marriage and family and remain single for Christ, if th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":2740,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Armor and Weapons","title_en":"Armor and Weapons","content_ro":"<h3>ARMOR AND WEAPONS<\/h3>\nThe location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by one side prompted new countertactics by the other.<\/p>\nThe three basic elements of the art of warfare are mobility, firepower, and security. Weapons alone seldom determined the issue of battle, particularly when both sides were evenly matched. The skill with which strategy and tactics were deployed, the spirit of the commander in directing his troops, and the precision with which the troops handled their weapons were decisive factors in many of the battles mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nAttack Weapons<\/p>\nThe armory of a military commander in antiquity consisted of a variety of offensive weapons designed to engage the enemy at long, medium, and short range. The bow and the sling were the principal weapons developed for long-range firepower; the javelin and the spear for medium-range; the sword, the ax, and the mace for short-range.<\/p>\n<h5>Bow<\/h5>\nEarly bows were fashioned from one piece of seasoned wood. No single type of bow wood, however, could provide the lightness, toughness, and elasticity required. Gradually the idea was conceived of combining several natural materials—wood, sections of animal horn, animal tendons and sinews, and glue—in the construction of a bow to meet all the demands placed on it. The resulting composite bow became a weapon of supreme importance. Composite structure gave a bow lightness, strength, and elasticity. Use of a double-convex form gave increased range and power of penetration.<\/p>\nThe bowstring was made from bindweed, natural cord, hide, or the intestines of oxen or camels. The bow was strung by hand (2 Kgs 13:16), usually bending it with the foot, which required considerable strength (cf. 2 Sm 22:35; Jer 51:3). That may explain why archers were known as “bow treaders” or as “those who tread a bow.”<\/p>\nThe form of the arrowhead was a response to the enemy’s defense and armor. In the late Bronze period, for example, a battle arrowhead was generally of bronze and was thick in the middle, tapering to a spine. Its shape was dictated by the fact that the coats of mail in widespread use at the time could be penetrated only by a spined or ribbed arrowhead. The arrow shaft was usually made from reed, a material that combined strength with pliability.<\/p>\n<h5>Sling<\/h5>\nComplementing the bow was the sling, devised originally by shepherds to drive off animals molesting their flocks (cf. 1 Sm 17:40). It gradually assumed importance as a weapon of war, its supreme advantage being simple construction. Not only did a sling require little technical skill to produce, but the stones used as projectiles were readily available on the ground. In the hands of a trained slinger a missile could be hurled as far as 600 feet (183 meters) in any terrain. The sling’s capacity for high-angled fire up a steep slope was particularly important in an assault on a fortified city. Its principal disadvantage was that strenuous training and experience were required to achieve accuracy in its operation (cf. Jgs 20:16).<\/p>\nA sling was commonly made from two leather thongs to which were attached a pocket for holding the stone. With the thongs pulled taut the pocket became a bag. The slinger held his arms above his head, the bag in his left hand and the ends of the taut thongs in his right hand. After swinging the sling several times around his head with great force to give it momentum, he suddenly released the end of one of the thongs to discharge the missile. Lead pellets as well as smooth stones were used as projectiles. They were carried in a bag or were piled conveniently at the slinger’s feet.<\/p>\nThe importance of the sling as a long-range weapon is evident in the familiar account of David’s encounter with the Philistine champion, Goliath of Gath (1 Sm 17:40-51). At that time the Philistines possessed many advanced types of weapons, but the bow and sling were not among them. They depended on medium-range weapons like the javelin and short-range weapons like the sword (cf. 1 Sm 17:4-7, 45, 51). The sling gave David an advantage in range that was decisive against Goliath’s superior weapons and armor (1 Sm 17:48-49).<\/p>\n<h5>Javelin and Spear<\/h5>\nTwo weapons employed for medium-distance warfare were similar in appearance but different in length and operation. The javelin, generally lighter and shorter than the spear, was designed for throwing. It was like a large arrow that was hurled by the hand. Sumerian charioteers of the third millennium BC<\/span> were armed with several javelins, carried like arrows in a quiver attached to the body of the chariot. Javelin heads were designed for penetration and altered in shape and material as enemy armor became more effective. A head fashioned with sharp hooks or barbs was difficult and painful to extract from a wound.<\/p>\nThe spear was similar in appearance to the javelin but was larger, heavier, and designed primarily as a thrusting weapon (cf. Nm 25:7-8). The oldest military monuments known indicate that the spear was already well developed. On the Egyptian hunter’s slate palette and on the black granite stele from Warka (c. 3000 BC<\/span>), the warrior’s personal weapon is a long staff tipped with a leaf-shaped blade with a sharp spine. Throughout the third millennium BC<\/span>, the spear was standard equipment for heavy-armed infantry and the most effective weapon for both chariot and infantry charges. Excavations have shown that the spear was the common weapon of the seminomadic tribes who began pouring into Palestine from the north in the middle Bronze Age.<\/p>\nAnother characteristic of spears in that early period was a metal tip attached to the butt of the shaft, enabling a spear to be stuck upright in the ground when not in use. That feature persisted into later periods and is mentioned specifically in reference to Saul’s spear, which was stuck in the ground by his head while he slept (1 Sm 26:7). Occasionally the metal tip functioned as a thrusting weapon in its own right, as is evident in the account of the slaying of Asahel (2 Sm 2:23).<\/p>\n<h5>Sword<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest objects made of iron was the sword. Swords were designed for either stabbing or striking. The stabbing sword developed as a long straight blade, tapered toward the point for piercing the body. Its tapered edges were sharpened so that it could also serve as a cutting instrument. The striking sword, on the other hand, had only one sharp edge, with the thickest part of the blade not along the center but along its blunt edge. Such a sword was often curved, sometimes to a degree that gave it the appearance of a sickle, but with the outer, convex edge sharpened as the cutting blade. The earliest type of sickle sword appeared in the second half of the third millennium BC<\/span>. Both the hilt, or handle, and the blade were fashioned from a single bar of metal. In the middle Bronze Age the curved striking sword functioned essentially as an ax, with a comparatively long hilt and short blade.<\/p>\nThat type of sword completely disappeared in the late Bronze Age because it proved ineffective against the widespread use of the helmet and armor. In its place appeared a new design with the curved blade equal in length to the hilt and sometimes longer. It provided a cutting weapon in chariot fighting and against an enemy who possessed no armor. Widespread use of such long-bladed swords at that time explains the phrase repeatedly used in the Bible to describe Joshua’s conquests of the Canaanites: Joshua smote them with the edge of the sword (e.g., Jos 8:24; 10:28-39). That expression would be inappropriate for the action of a short, straight, narrow sword designed as a thrusting weapon. A fine specimen of curved sword was found at Gezer in Palestine in the tomb of a nobleman, dating to the first half of the 14th century BC<\/span>. The same type of blade is also depicted on a late 13th century BC<\/span> ivory carving from Megiddo.<\/p>\nDuring those centuries advances made in the technology of forging iron were reflected in the development of the straight sword as well. The Sea Peoples, among whom were the Philistines, specialized in short-range arms. As early as the 13th century BC<\/span> they began to make the straight blade more effective than the curved sickle-type sword.<\/p>\nBy the time of Saul, the Philistines had used their technology to establish themselves as city dwellers and the dominant military presence in the land. Their military superiority was based on the chariot and on an infantry equipped with personal armaments of high quality. They carefully retained the forging of hard metal under their own supervision and kept the Israelites from developing forges of their own (cf. 1 Sm 13:19-22). Not until that situation was altered could the balance of power pass from the Philistines to Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Mace and Ax<\/h5>\nThe mace and the ax, developed as alternatives to the sword before hard metal could be forged, were designed for hand-to-hand fighting. They consisted of a comparatively short wooden handle, one end of which was fitted with a lethal head made of stone or metal. The weapons were swung like a hammer to deliver a striking blow. The critical detail was the secure fastening of the head to the handle to prevent its flying off when swung or breaking off when struck. The handle of both the mace and the ax was widened at the point of the grip, tapering toward the head, to prevent the weapon from slipping from the hand when swung. Such weapons were carried in the hand or attached to the wrist with a loop. The mace was designed to batter and smash, the ax to pierce and cut.<\/p>\nThe mace was a very primitive weapon. The hieroglyphic sign for the infinitive to fight<\/em> represents hands holding a mace and a medium-size shield. During the Chalcolithic and the first half of the early Bronze periods (3500–2500 BC<\/span>), the mace was the primary weapon for personal combat. Because the helmet had not yet made its appearance, the striking power of the mace was devastating. Long after the mace had become obsolete as a personal weapon, it continued to serve as a symbol of sovereign authority for the king or deity (cf. Ps 2:9).<\/p>\nComplex technical problems taxed the ingenuity of armorers in the production of the ax. The blade had to be fixed securely to the handle. The cutting ax had a short blade and a wide edge. It was an effective weapon against an enemy unprotected by armor. It was also used for tearing down the wall of a besieged city, as in the wall painting at Saqqarah (23d century BC<\/span>). But against armor the cutting ax was ineffective. Deeper power of penetration was achieved with the piercing ax, which had a long, narrow blade ending in a short, sharp edge.<\/p>\nDefensive Protection<\/p>\nWithout provision for personal protection of the individual soldier on the battlefield, the mobility and firepower of an army could be seriously compromised.<\/p>\n<h5>Shield<\/h5>\nDesigned to provide a barrier between the body of a soldier and the weapon of his foe, the shield was one of the oldest means of security devised. In the time of the judges and the early Israelite kings, persons of rank were frequently protected by a very large shield. It was carried by a special shield bearer who remained constantly at the unprotected right side of the warrior to whom he was assigned as a bodyguard (cf. Jgs 9:54; 1 Sm 14:1; 17:7; 2 Sm 18:15). The right side of an armed combatant was unprotected because he carried his weapons in his right hand and his shield in his left. The shield bearer therefore had to stand by his master’s vulnerable right side to protect him (1 Sm 17:41; cf. Ps 16:8). In that period the shield was ordinarily anointed as part of the consecration of an Israelite warrior and his weapons for battle (cf. 2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Armor<\/h5>\nPersonal armor protected the body of a combatant from injury while freeing his hands to use his weapons. The earliest type of body armor formed a substitute for the long shield. It consisted of a full-length tunic made from leather or some tough fiber. It was relatively simple to produce, was light enough to permit full mobility, and offered a measure of protection to the chest, abdomen, back, thighs, and legs. So equipped, a soldier required only a short shield to protect his arms and face.<\/p>\nThe late Bronze period saw the development of the coat of mail. It consisted of hundreds of small pieces of overlapping metal joined together like fish scales and sewed to the surface of a cloth or leather tunic. Written documents from Nuzi state that from 400 to 600 large scales and several hundred smaller scales went into the production of a single coat. Smaller scales and narrower rows were used where greater flexibility was needed, as at the throat and neck. The resulting garment was relatively flexible, affording freedom of movement, while the hard metal scales gave far greater personal protection than leather or fiber could provide.<\/p>\n<h5>Helmet<\/h5>\nSince the greatest point of vulnerability for a soldier in combat was his head, concern for some form of protective helmet can be traced as far back as the end of the fourth millennium BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBronze helmets were worn both by Goliath and by Saul (1 Sm 17:5, 38). Although the helmet was standard equipment for the heavily armed infantry of foreign armies for centuries, it does not seem to have been a common possession of soldiers in the Israelite army during the period of the united monarchy. Among military reforms introduced by King Uzziah in the ninth century BC<\/span> was provision of helmets for the army of the southern kingdom of Judah (2 Chr 26:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARMOR AND WEAPONS<\/h3>\nThe location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by one side prompted new countertactics by the other.<\/p>\nThe three basic elements of the art of warfare are mobility, firepower, and security. Weapons alone seldom determined the issue of battle, particularly when both sides were evenly matched. The skill with which strategy and tactics were deployed, the spirit of the commander in directing his troops, and the precision with which the troops handled their weapons were decisive factors in many of the battles mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nAttack Weapons<\/p>\nThe armory of a military commander in antiquity consisted of a variety of offensive weapons designed to engage the enemy at long, medium, and short range. The bow and the sling were the principal weapons developed for long-range firepower; the javelin and the spear for medium-range; the sword, the ax, and the mace for short-range.<\/p>\n<h5>Bow<\/h5>\nEarly bows were fashioned from one piece of seasoned wood. No single type of bow wood, however, could provide the lightness, toughness, and elasticity required. Gradually the idea was conceived of combining several natural materials—wood, sections of animal horn, animal tendons and sinews, and glue—in the construction of a bow to meet all the demands placed on it. The resulting composite bow became a weapon of supreme importance. Composite structure gave a bow lightness, strength, and elasticity. Use of a double-convex form gave increased range and power of penetration.<\/p>\nThe bowstring was made from bindweed, natural cord, hide, or the intestines of oxen or camels. The bow was strung by hand (2 Kgs 13:16), usually bending it with the foot, which required considerable strength (cf. 2 Sm 22:35; Jer 51:3). That may explain why archers were known as “bow treaders” or as “those who tread a bow.”<\/p>\nThe form of the arrowhead was a response to the enemy’s defense and armor. In the late Bronze period, for example, a battle arrowhead was generally of bronze and was thick in the middle, tapering to a spine. Its shape was dictated by the fact that the coats of mail in widespread use at the time could be penetrated only by a spined or ribbed arrowhead. The arrow shaft was usually made from reed, a material that combined strength with pliability.<\/p>\n<h5>Sling<\/h5>\nComplementing the bow was the sling, devised originally by shepherds to drive off animals molesting their flocks (cf. 1 Sm 17:40). It gradually assumed importance as a weapon of war, its supreme advantage being simple construction. Not only did a sling require little technical skill to produce, but the stones used as projectiles were readily available on the ground. In the hands of a trained slinger a missile could be hurled as far as 600 feet (183 meters) in any terrain. The sling’s capacity for high-angled fire up a steep slope was particularly important in an assault on a fortified city. Its principal disadvantage was that strenuous training and experience were required to achieve accuracy in its operation (cf. Jgs 20:16).<\/p>\nA sling was commonly made from two leather thongs to which were attached a pocket for holding the stone. With the thongs pulled taut the pocket became a bag. The slinger held his arms above his head, the bag in his left hand and the ends of the taut thongs in his right hand. After swinging the sling several times around his head with great force to give it momentum, he suddenly released the end of one of the thongs to discharge the missile. Lead pellets as well as smooth stones were used as projectiles. They were carried in a bag or were piled conveniently at the slinger’s feet.<\/p>\nThe importance of the sling as a long-range weapon is evident in the familiar account of David’s encounter with the Philistine champion, Goliath of Gath (1 Sm 17:40-51). At that time the Philistines possessed many advanced types of weapons, but the bow and sling were not among them. They depended on medium-range weapons like the javelin and short-range weapons like the sword (cf. 1 Sm 17:4-7, 45, 51). The sling gave David an advantage in range that was decisive against Goliath’s superior weapons and armor (1 Sm 17:48-49).<\/p>\n<h5>Javelin and Spear<\/h5>\nTwo weapons employed for medium-distance warfare were similar in appearance but different in length and operation. The javelin, generally lighter and shorter than the spear, was designed for throwing. It was like a large arrow that was hurled by the hand. Sumerian charioteers of the third millennium BC<\/span> were armed with several javelins, carried like arrows in a quiver attached to the body of the chariot. Javelin heads were designed for penetration and altered in shape and material as enemy armor became more effective. A head fashioned with sharp hooks or barbs was difficult and painful to extract from a wound.<\/p>\nThe spear was similar in appearance to the javelin but was larger, heavier, and designed primarily as a thrusting weapon (cf. Nm 25:7-8). The oldest military monuments known indicate that the spear was already well developed. On the Egyptian hunter’s slate palette and on the black granite stele from Warka (c. 3000 BC<\/span>), the warrior’s personal weapon is a long staff tipped with a leaf-shaped blade with a sharp spine. Throughout the third millennium BC<\/span>, the spear was standard equipment for heavy-armed infantry and the most effective weapon for both chariot and infantry charges. Excavations have shown that the spear was the common weapon of the seminomadic tribes who began pouring into Palestine from the north in the middle Bronze Age.<\/p>\nAnother characteristic of spears in that early period was a metal tip attached to the butt of the shaft, enabling a spear to be stuck upright in the ground when not in use. That feature persisted into later periods and is mentioned specifically in reference to Saul’s spear, which was stuck in the ground by his head while he slept (1 Sm 26:7). Occasionally the metal tip functioned as a thrusting weapon in its own right, as is evident in the account of the slaying of Asahel (2 Sm 2:23).<\/p>\n<h5>Sword<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest objects made of iron was the sword. Swords were designed for either stabbing or striking. The stabbing sword developed as a long straight blade, tapered toward the point for piercing the body. Its tapered edges were sharpened so that it could also serve as a cutting instrument. The striking sword, on the other hand, had only one sharp edge, with the thickest part of the blade not along the center but along its blunt edge. Such a sword was often curved, sometimes to a degree that gave it the appearance of a sickle, but with the outer, convex edge sharpened as the cutting blade. The earliest type of sickle sword appeared in the second half of the third millennium BC<\/span>. Both the hilt, or handle, and the blade were fashioned from a single bar of metal. In the middle Bronze Age the curved striking sword functioned essentially as an ax, with a comparatively long hilt and short blade.<\/p>\nThat type of sword completely disappeared in the late Bronze Age because it proved ineffective against the widespread use of the helmet and armor. In its place appeared a new design with the curved blade equal in length to the hilt and sometimes longer. It provided a cutting weapon in chariot fighting and against an enemy who possessed no armor. Widespread use of such long-bladed swords at that time explains the phrase repeatedly used in the Bible to describe Joshua’s conquests of the Canaanites: Joshua smote them with the edge of the sword (e.g., Jos 8:24; 10:28-39). That expression would be inappropriate for the action of a short, straight, narrow sword designed as a thrusting weapon. A fine specimen of curved sword was found at Gezer in Palestine in the tomb of a nobleman, dating to the first half of the 14th century BC<\/span>. The same type of blade is also depicted on a late 13th century BC<\/span> ivory carving from Megiddo.<\/p>\nDuring those centuries advances made in the technology of forging iron were reflected in the development of the straight sword as well. The Sea Peoples, among whom were the Philistines, specialized in short-range arms. As early as the 13th century BC<\/span> they began to make the straight blade more effective than the curved sickle-type sword.<\/p>\nBy the time of Saul, the Philistines had used their technology to establish themselves as city dwellers and the dominant military presence in the land. Their military superiority was based on the chariot and on an infantry equipped with personal armaments of high quality. They carefully retained the forging of hard metal under their own supervision and kept the Israelites from developing forges of their own (cf. 1 Sm 13:19-22). Not until that situation was altered could the balance of power pass from the Philistines to Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Mace and Ax<\/h5>\nThe mace and the ax, developed as alternatives to the sword before hard metal could be forged, were designed for hand-to-hand fighting. They consisted of a comparatively short wooden handle, one end of which was fitted with a lethal head made of stone or metal. The weapons were swung like a hammer to deliver a striking blow. The critical detail was the secure fastening of the head to the handle to prevent its flying off when swung or breaking off when struck. The handle of both the mace and the ax was widened at the point of the grip, tapering toward the head, to prevent the weapon from slipping from the hand when swung. Such weapons were carried in the hand or attached to the wrist with a loop. The mace was designed to batter and smash, the ax to pierce and cut.<\/p>\nThe mace was a very primitive weapon. The hieroglyphic sign for the infinitive to fight<\/em> represents hands holding a mace and a medium-size shield. During the Chalcolithic and the first half of the early Bronze periods (3500–2500 BC<\/span>), the mace was the primary weapon for personal combat. Because the helmet had not yet made its appearance, the striking power of the mace was devastating. Long after the mace had become obsolete as a personal weapon, it continued to serve as a symbol of sovereign authority for the king or deity (cf. Ps 2:9).<\/p>\nComplex technical problems taxed the ingenuity of armorers in the production of the ax. The blade had to be fixed securely to the handle. The cutting ax had a short blade and a wide edge. It was an effective weapon against an enemy unprotected by armor. It was also used for tearing down the wall of a besieged city, as in the wall painting at Saqqarah (23d century BC<\/span>). But against armor the cutting ax was ineffective. Deeper power of penetration was achieved with the piercing ax, which had a long, narrow blade ending in a short, sharp edge.<\/p>\nDefensive Protection<\/p>\nWithout provision for personal protection of the individual soldier on the battlefield, the mobility and firepower of an army could be seriously compromised.<\/p>\n<h5>Shield<\/h5>\nDesigned to provide a barrier between the body of a soldier and the weapon of his foe, the shield was one of the oldest means of security devised. In the time of the judges and the early Israelite kings, persons of rank were frequently protected by a very large shield. It was carried by a special shield bearer who remained constantly at the unprotected right side of the warrior to whom he was assigned as a bodyguard (cf. Jgs 9:54; 1 Sm 14:1; 17:7; 2 Sm 18:15). The right side of an armed combatant was unprotected because he carried his weapons in his right hand and his shield in his left. The shield bearer therefore had to stand by his master’s vulnerable right side to protect him (1 Sm 17:41; cf. Ps 16:8). In that period the shield was ordinarily anointed as part of the consecration of an Israelite warrior and his weapons for battle (cf. 2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Armor<\/h5>\nPersonal armor protected the body of a combatant from injury while freeing his hands to use his weapons. The earliest type of body armor formed a substitute for the long shield. It consisted of a full-length tunic made from leather or some tough fiber. It was relatively simple to produce, was light enough to permit full mobility, and offered a measure of protection to the chest, abdomen, back, thighs, and legs. So equipped, a soldier required only a short shield to protect his arms and face.<\/p>\nThe late Bronze period saw the development of the coat of mail. It consisted of hundreds of small pieces of overlapping metal joined together like fish scales and sewed to the surface of a cloth or leather tunic. Written documents from Nuzi state that from 400 to 600 large scales and several hundred smaller scales went into the production of a single coat. Smaller scales and narrower rows were used where greater flexibility was needed, as at the throat and neck. The resulting garment was relatively flexible, affording freedom of movement, while the hard metal scales gave far greater personal protection than leather or fiber could provide.<\/p>\n<h5>Helmet<\/h5>\nSince the greatest point of vulnerability for a soldier in combat was his head, concern for some form of protective helmet can be traced as far back as the end of the fourth millennium BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nBronze helmets were worn both by Goliath and by Saul (1 Sm 17:5, 38). Although the helmet was standard equipment for the heavily armed infantry of foreign armies for centuries, it does not seem to have been a common possession of soldiers in the Israelite army during the period of the united monarchy. Among military reforms introduced by King Uzziah in the ninth century BC<\/span> was provision of helmets for the army of the southern kingdom of Judah (2 Chr 26:14).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARMOR AND WEAPONS The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by o...","summary_en":"ARMOR AND WEAPONS The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by o...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25933,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\nA “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\nIn Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\nIn the years 2000 to 1000 BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\nBy the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\nWhile the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\nMinerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\nMetals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\nMinerals<\/p>\nA mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\nMetals<\/p>\nA metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\nIn order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\nThe method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\nThe lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\nThe OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\nAlthough several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\nThere are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nGold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\nGold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\nThe vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\nGold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\nThe possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\nIn the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\nThe use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\nIn the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\nThere are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\nThe process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\nNative copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\nBy NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\nThe Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\nThese early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah in the eighth century BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\nBy Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\nA “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\nIn Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\nIn the years 2000 to 1000 BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\nBy the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\nWhile the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\nMinerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\nMetals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\nMinerals<\/p>\nA mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\nMetals<\/p>\nA metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\nIn order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\nThe method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\nThe lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\nThe OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\nAlthough several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\nThere are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\nGold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\nGold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\nThe vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\nGold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\nThe possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\nIn the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\nThe use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\nIn the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\nThere are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\nThe process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\nNative copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\nBy NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\nThe Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\nThese early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\nThe prophet Isaiah in the eighth century BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\nBy Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30984,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pottery","title_en":"Pottery","content_ro":"<h3>POTTERY<\/h3>\nThe manufacture of clayware and earthenware.<\/p>\nHistory and Development<\/p>\nThe first pottery was made by hand, molded into the desired shape and dried in the sun. There are no records describing the work of the ancient potter and his or her place in society, although the walls of tombs and palaces in Egypt abound with pictures of potters at work and a great deal can be learned by observing the activities portrayed. The first potters are thought to have been women who, out of necessity, produced vessels for food preparation, while the men were out trying to bring in the food. This still seems to be the pattern in places like Africa, Anatolia, Kurdistan, and the southwestern United States. Eventually, the making of pottery became a profession, apparently practiced by certain people in a large village and often by itinerant craftsmen moving from village to village making pottery to meet the demand and then moving on.<\/p>\n\nThe discovery that moved pottery making from an occasional activity of a housewife to that of a profession was the invention of the potter’s wheel. The speed with which vessels could then be made industrialized the craft, and it eventually became primarily a male occupation, although there is evidence that people (one would assume women) continued to make some vessels at home. Until the discovery of the potter’s wheel, the techniques of making pots by laying coils of clay, one on top of the other, was the predominant method used, especially for large vessels. The first potter’s wheel found in excavations in the lands of the Bible come from Ur in Sumer around 3500 to 3000 BC<\/span>. It may have been developed in emerging urban settlements due to a greater market for pottery. Jeremiah speaks of a potter’s workshop in the sixth century BC<\/span>: “So I did as he told me and found the potter working at his wheel. But the jar he was making did not turn out as he had hoped, so the potter squashed the jar into a lump of clay and started again” (Jer 18:3-4, nlt<\/span>). There is evidence in Greece of large workshops in the classical period employing more than 50 workers.<\/p>\nClay must be spun at least 100 revolutions a minute to create the centrifugal force necessary to “throw” the vessel. The oldest wheels were made of two stones, a lower one with a hole in the center and an upper one with a protrusion that fits into the lower hole, allowing the upper stone to be turned. The upper stone, with a larger board attached to it on which the vessel rested, was undoubtedly turned by an apprentice. By the Hellenistic period, after 300 BC<\/span>, the foot wheel was invented.<\/p>\nAnother technique used in ancient pottery making was the mold. Molds were carved out of soft stone or made from clay for use in mass production of the same kind of vessel. Lamp molds are rather common in museums of the Middle East from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Small oil lamps were made in two parts in the molds, an upper half and lower half, and then fused together before firing. Herodian lamps also had spatulated spouts that were formed independently of the other two parts.<\/p>\nThe amount of diversity in both the size and shape of ancient pottery is remarkable. An average ancient home would have within it large vessels (amphorae and pithoi) to hold liquids such as wine or water. These were pointed on the bottom and designed originally to lie against the slope of a ship’s hull while being transported. In homes of the common people they were partially set into the ground and leaned against the wall. In taverns in Pompeii and Herculaneum they were stored in wooden racks. Large, open-mouthed jars would be partially buried in the ground to keep the liquid contained in them cool. Also, grains of various kinds could be kept in these, some of which were four feet (1.2 meters) in height and three feet (.9 meter) wide. Smaller water decanters holding a quart (.9 liter) or more were commonly used. Globular jugs were used to serve wine, having spouts that prevented spilling the precious liquid. Round canteens, with handles on either shoulder, were used to carry water on a journey. Bowls and dishes were common in various sizes and depths in ancient homes. Large-mouth dishes known as kraters were used for drinking. Cooking was done in medium-sized (about one gallon, or 3.8 liters) pots with rounded bottoms that would sit easily in the fire or in a dug-out place in the floor after being taken from the fire. They also had two looped handles, which allowed them to be hung over the fire.<\/p>\nVessels were painted in classical Greece with vivid descriptions of religion, sex, warfare, and community life. Earlier vessels of Minoan and Mycenaean cultures contain beautiful artwork in the form of plants, animals, and marine life as well as geometric designs. From earliest times in the Middle East, variations in design were created by the use of dark and light shades of slip painted or poured randomly on vessels.<\/p>\nPottery in Scripture<\/p>\nThere are many references to the potter and his work in the Bible. Typical are the following: “Israel, can I not do to you as this potter has done to his clay? As the clay is in the potter’s hand, so are you in my hand” (Jer 18:6, nlt<\/span>); “Lord<\/span>, you are our Father. We are the clay, and you are the potter. We are all formed by your hand” (Is 64:8, nlt<\/span>). In the Creation story God is portrayed as a potter making man from the ground (Gn 2:7). His absolute sovereignty in the election of Israel is argued by Paul (Rom 9:20-21) from an illustration used by Isaiah (Is 45:9) concerning a pot arguing with its potter: “Does a clay pot ever argue with its maker? Does the clay dispute with the one who shapes it, saying, ‘Stop, you are doing it wrong!’ Does the pot exclaim, ‘How clumsy can you be!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJeremiah graphically prophesied the destruction of Jerusalem by breaking a potter’s earthen flask into so many pieces that it could not be restored (Jer 19:11). The Jews, at the time of the destruction, though precious in God’s sight, were “treated like pots of clay” (Lam 4:2)—an expression of their human frailty; they could be easily broken and destroyed.<\/p>\nA broken pottery vessel in the ancient world was considered so worthless that the pieces were swept aside or thrown out the window and a new one made. The potter’s art was widely known and vessels were readily available at a cheap price. People normally did not transport their vessels when they moved. It was easier to make or buy new ones than to try to carry them, especially the larger ones. Broken pieces, however, were not without some use. Job scraped the secretion from his sores with a potsherd, which is a broken piece of pottery (Jb 2:8). At a much later time, potsherds were used to write notes on and were called ostraca. The psalmist spoke of his strength as having dried up like a potsherd (Ps 22:15)—a reference to the lack of moisture in a dried and fired pottery vessel. The eventual defeat of polytheistic and idolatrous pagan nations is described as vessels of pottery being dashed to the ground and broken to pieces by the righteous (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Brick, Brick Kiln; Inscriptions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POTTERY<\/h3>\nThe manufacture of clayware and earthenware.<\/p>\nHistory and Development<\/p>\nThe first pottery was made by hand, molded into the desired shape and dried in the sun. There are no records describing the work of the ancient potter and his or her place in society, although the walls of tombs and palaces in Egypt abound with pictures of potters at work and a great deal can be learned by observing the activities portrayed. The first potters are thought to have been women who, out of necessity, produced vessels for food preparation, while the men were out trying to bring in the food. This still seems to be the pattern in places like Africa, Anatolia, Kurdistan, and the southwestern United States. Eventually, the making of pottery became a profession, apparently practiced by certain people in a large village and often by itinerant craftsmen moving from village to village making pottery to meet the demand and then moving on.<\/p>\n\nThe discovery that moved pottery making from an occasional activity of a housewife to that of a profession was the invention of the potter’s wheel. The speed with which vessels could then be made industrialized the craft, and it eventually became primarily a male occupation, although there is evidence that people (one would assume women) continued to make some vessels at home. Until the discovery of the potter’s wheel, the techniques of making pots by laying coils of clay, one on top of the other, was the predominant method used, especially for large vessels. The first potter’s wheel found in excavations in the lands of the Bible come from Ur in Sumer around 3500 to 3000 BC<\/span>. It may have been developed in emerging urban settlements due to a greater market for pottery. Jeremiah speaks of a potter’s workshop in the sixth century BC<\/span>: “So I did as he told me and found the potter working at his wheel. But the jar he was making did not turn out as he had hoped, so the potter squashed the jar into a lump of clay and started again” (Jer 18:3-4, nlt<\/span>). There is evidence in Greece of large workshops in the classical period employing more than 50 workers.<\/p>\nClay must be spun at least 100 revolutions a minute to create the centrifugal force necessary to “throw” the vessel. The oldest wheels were made of two stones, a lower one with a hole in the center and an upper one with a protrusion that fits into the lower hole, allowing the upper stone to be turned. The upper stone, with a larger board attached to it on which the vessel rested, was undoubtedly turned by an apprentice. By the Hellenistic period, after 300 BC<\/span>, the foot wheel was invented.<\/p>\nAnother technique used in ancient pottery making was the mold. Molds were carved out of soft stone or made from clay for use in mass production of the same kind of vessel. Lamp molds are rather common in museums of the Middle East from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Small oil lamps were made in two parts in the molds, an upper half and lower half, and then fused together before firing. Herodian lamps also had spatulated spouts that were formed independently of the other two parts.<\/p>\nThe amount of diversity in both the size and shape of ancient pottery is remarkable. An average ancient home would have within it large vessels (amphorae and pithoi) to hold liquids such as wine or water. These were pointed on the bottom and designed originally to lie against the slope of a ship’s hull while being transported. In homes of the common people they were partially set into the ground and leaned against the wall. In taverns in Pompeii and Herculaneum they were stored in wooden racks. Large, open-mouthed jars would be partially buried in the ground to keep the liquid contained in them cool. Also, grains of various kinds could be kept in these, some of which were four feet (1.2 meters) in height and three feet (.9 meter) wide. Smaller water decanters holding a quart (.9 liter) or more were commonly used. Globular jugs were used to serve wine, having spouts that prevented spilling the precious liquid. Round canteens, with handles on either shoulder, were used to carry water on a journey. Bowls and dishes were common in various sizes and depths in ancient homes. Large-mouth dishes known as kraters were used for drinking. Cooking was done in medium-sized (about one gallon, or 3.8 liters) pots with rounded bottoms that would sit easily in the fire or in a dug-out place in the floor after being taken from the fire. They also had two looped handles, which allowed them to be hung over the fire.<\/p>\nVessels were painted in classical Greece with vivid descriptions of religion, sex, warfare, and community life. Earlier vessels of Minoan and Mycenaean cultures contain beautiful artwork in the form of plants, animals, and marine life as well as geometric designs. From earliest times in the Middle East, variations in design were created by the use of dark and light shades of slip painted or poured randomly on vessels.<\/p>\nPottery in Scripture<\/p>\nThere are many references to the potter and his work in the Bible. Typical are the following: “Israel, can I not do to you as this potter has done to his clay? As the clay is in the potter’s hand, so are you in my hand” (Jer 18:6, nlt<\/span>); “Lord<\/span>, you are our Father. We are the clay, and you are the potter. We are all formed by your hand” (Is 64:8, nlt<\/span>). In the Creation story God is portrayed as a potter making man from the ground (Gn 2:7). His absolute sovereignty in the election of Israel is argued by Paul (Rom 9:20-21) from an illustration used by Isaiah (Is 45:9) concerning a pot arguing with its potter: “Does a clay pot ever argue with its maker? Does the clay dispute with the one who shapes it, saying, ‘Stop, you are doing it wrong!’ Does the pot exclaim, ‘How clumsy can you be!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJeremiah graphically prophesied the destruction of Jerusalem by breaking a potter’s earthen flask into so many pieces that it could not be restored (Jer 19:11). The Jews, at the time of the destruction, though precious in God’s sight, were “treated like pots of clay” (Lam 4:2)—an expression of their human frailty; they could be easily broken and destroyed.<\/p>\nA broken pottery vessel in the ancient world was considered so worthless that the pieces were swept aside or thrown out the window and a new one made. The potter’s art was widely known and vessels were readily available at a cheap price. People normally did not transport their vessels when they moved. It was easier to make or buy new ones than to try to carry them, especially the larger ones. Broken pieces, however, were not without some use. Job scraped the secretion from his sores with a potsherd, which is a broken piece of pottery (Jb 2:8). At a much later time, potsherds were used to write notes on and were called ostraca. The psalmist spoke of his strength as having dried up like a potsherd (Ps 22:15)—a reference to the lack of moisture in a dried and fired pottery vessel. The eventual defeat of polytheistic and idolatrous pagan nations is described as vessels of pottery being dashed to the ground and broken to pieces by the righteous (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Brick, Brick Kiln; Inscriptions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POTTERY The manufacture of clayware and earthenware. History and Development The first pottery was made by hand, molded into the desired shape and dried in the sun. There are no records describing the work of the ancient potter and his or her place in society, although the walls of tombs and palaces in Egypt abound with pictures of potters at work and a great deal can be learned by observing the activities portrayed. The first potters are thought to have been women who, out of necessity, prod...","summary_en":"POTTERY The manufacture of clayware and earthenware. History and Development The first pottery was made by hand, molded into the desired shape and dried in the sun. There are no records describing the work of the ancient potter and his or her place in society, although the walls of tombs and palaces in Egypt abound with pictures of potters at work and a great deal can be learned by observing the activities portrayed. The first potters are thought to have been women who, out of necessity, prod...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48795,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:9","content_ro":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","content_en":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","summary_en":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76421,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:9","content_ro":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","content_en":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","summary_en":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104047,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:9","content_ro":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","content_en":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","summary_en":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131673,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:9","content_ro":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","content_en":"2:9<\/strong> The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","summary_en":"2:9 The Lord gives his anointed ruler the power to conquer the nations as his inheritance (Isa 11:4; Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15), breaking their rebellion, resistance, and independence.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":48796,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:10","content_ro":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","content_en":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","summary_en":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76422,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:10","content_ro":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","content_en":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","summary_en":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104048,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:10","content_ro":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","content_en":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","summary_en":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:10","content_ro":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","content_en":"2:10<\/strong> It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","summary_en":"2:10 It pleases the Lord when his people submit to him and seek his protection. The wise accept the Lord’s rebuke and desire to repent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62844,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Wisdom Psalms","title_en":"Wisdom Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","summary_ro":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","summary_en":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90470,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Wisdom Psalms","title_en":"Wisdom Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","summary_ro":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","summary_en":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118096,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Wisdom Psalms","title_en":"Wisdom Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","summary_ro":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","summary_en":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145722,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Wisdom Psalms","title_en":"Wisdom Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Wisdom Psalms<\/h3>\nSome psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146).<\/p>\nIn the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the gods and other people, and carefully observing life, society, and nature. In Israel, wisdom shares these concerns but is distinct in the centrality it gives to fear of the Lord. God alone is the center and focus of life, and proper fear of him opens the path of wisdom (111:10). Fear of the Lord is a disposition of absolute submission to and trust in the Lord (115:11; see also 40:3; 112:7), which leads to purity of life (19:9). Psalm 34 connects the fear of the Lord with abundant life.<\/p>\nThe way of wisdom is the way of godliness. Psalm 1 invites all readers of the psalms to delight in God, his revelation, and the lifestyle that results from his care for the wise. The lives of the godly demonstrate inner consistency, growth, and beauty as they increasingly reflect God’s righteousness and justice, love and fidelity, compassion and grace. They practice godliness from the inside out.<\/p>\nWisdom enlarges a person’s perspective on life. A wise person desires to see life from God’s point of view. This search means living in submission and trust under the sovereign King who maintains the order and harmony of creation. Seeking God encourages an orderly and peaceful life and motivates obedience (19:7; 25:12; 51:6; 112:1; 119:98-100). The wise imitate God, and their lives are full of joy even when they are suffering hardship. They praise the Lord amid all circumstances of life (see 22:23, 25), and they face life confidently because the Lord is with them (23:4; 27:1, 3; 33:18; 91:1-16).<\/p>\nIn contrast to the way of the wise is the way of the fool, or the wicked. Such people perceive themselves as powerful and continually boast of their accomplishments. They do not accept limitations. They brag, oppress, steal, and deprive others of their happiness. They have no fear of the Lord (36:1; 55:19). The poets of Israel repeatedly warned the people to be wary of the path of folly, lest God’s judgment overtake them (2:10-11; 94:8-10).<\/p>\nJesus Christ came into the world as God in the flesh, and he embodies all the qualities of wisdom. Through him, we can walk in the way of wisdom (Col 2:2-3).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139<\/p>","summary_ro":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","summary_en":"Wisdom Psalms Some psalms are called wisdom psalms because they make a case for the primary importance of wisdom or instruct readers in dealing with questions, issues, and doubts that arise in life (see Pss 1; 14; 25; 34; 37; 39; 49; 73; 78; 90; 91; 111; 112; 127; 128; 131; 133; 139). Many other psalms contain elements of wisdom teaching (see Pss 18; 27; 31; 32; 40; 62; 92; 94; 107; 144; 146). In the other nations of the ancient Near East, wisdom had to do with maintaining order, pleasing the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":12113,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Fear","title_en":"Fear","content_ro":"<h3>FEAR<\/h3>\nEmotional foreboding or dread of impending distress or misfortune. Often spoken of as the cause of people wanting religion. Yet fear alone can never account for true religion, since men are impelled to draw near unto God, the object of their worship. One does not desire to come close to the being one fears.<\/p>\nThe biblical conception of fear embraces a much wider dimension than does our common English word, which simply denotes dread or terror. While this meaning forms an essential part of the scriptural picture, it is by no means the primary significance, especially when the fear of God—an awe-inspiring reverence—is referred to.<\/p>\nThere is, of course, a legitimate place for the fear of God in the lower, anxious sense. We are told, “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31, rsv<\/span>). Jesus taught that we should fear God because he has the power to punish sin and consign people to utter destruction (Lk 12:4-5). Fear has a constructive role to play in enabling men to realize both the degeneracy of their souls and their need of divine forgiveness. The first occurrence of such fear may be found in Genesis 3, where Adam and Eve recoiled from the presence of the holy God whose commandment they had blatantly spurned. Their fear was entirely reasonable because they had been sternly warned that disobedience would incur a grave judgment. Fear is quite naturally the logical consequence of sin (Gn 3:10; 4:13-14; Prv 28:1). The Bible presents an array of people who are plagued with deep-reaching anxiety (e.g., Cain, Saul, Ahaz, and Pilate). Anxious fear seizes the wicked (Jb 15:24), surprises the hypocrite (Is 33:14), and consumes evildoers (Ps 73:19), whose faithless lives are characterized by fear (Rv 21:8). Pharaoh’s mighty host was virtually paralyzed by fear as God moved against them (Ex 15:16), and Job’s associate Bildad spoke of men driven to their knees by the judgments of God (Jb 18:11).<\/p>\nFear has a tendency to either immobilize people or seriously affect their activity. This is especially true of the spiritually uncommitted. Saul’s fear of the people caused him to transgress the commandment of God (1 Sm 15:24). The parents whose blind son was miraculously healed by Jesus were afraid to support Christ because they feared the Jews (Jn 9:22). In the parable of the talents Jesus told of a man whose fear prevented him from doing his reasonable duty (Mt 25:25).<\/p>\nJesus Christ, by his atoning death, resurrection, and heavenly intercession for believers, is the unique liberator from fear. The apostle Paul encouraged the Romans (Rom 8:15) by informing them that in their conversion to Christ they received the Holy Spirit, not as a spirit of fear and bondage, but as the spirit of adoption, whereby they could address God as “Abba” (the Aramaic word commonly used by Jewish children to address their fathers). This is the word by which our Lord Jesus addressed his heavenly Father and which Christians, by virtue of their adoption into the family of God, may also use in speaking to God (Gal 4:6). Recipients of God’s love have received a dynamic force for casting out their anxieties (1 Jn 4:18).<\/p>\nUnwarranted fear may harm the efforts of the people of God. Jeremiah was warned by God not to fear the faces of his opponents (Jer 1:8) lest God allow calamity to befall him (v 17). Similar calls to courage were given to Jeremiah’s contemporary, Ezekiel, and to a great many others (Jos 1:7-9; Ez 2:6). We realize that even godly people are tempted to fear and may be temporarily overwhelmed (Ps 55:5). Therefore, God repeatedly counsels his people not to succumb to that temptation (Is 8:12; Jn 14:1, 27). He tells them to heap their anxieties upon the God of their redemption, whose care for his sheep is infinitely great (1 Pt 5:7). Faith, then, is the indispensable antecedent of fearlessness as seen in the words of Isaiah: “Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace, whose mind is stayed on thee: because he trusteth in thee” (Is 26:3, kjv<\/span>). The psalmists repeatedly stress the role of faith in conquering fear (Pss 37:1; 46:2; 112:7).<\/p>\nGenuine faith is expressed in, and animated by, a reverential awe, and this is the basic meaning of the biblical idea of the fear of God. Unless there is personal awareness of the awesome and majestic sovereignty of God, it is impossible to have a meaningful faith existing in one’s heart (Pss 5:7; 89:7). Though Christians are to be liberated from the fear of men (Heb 13:6), death (2:15), and life in general (2 Tm 1:6-7), they must never lose their sense of the awesomeness of God. Such awareness not only leads to true wisdom (Ps 111:10) but also provides direction for the child of God throughout life (Eph 5:21; Phil 2:12). Those who love God learn of wholesome fear by searching the Scriptures (Prv 2:3-5), the Word of God, which the ancient Israelites were commanded to cleave to and obey as evidence of their reverence for God (Dt 6:2). In Acts 10:2 Cornelius and his family were called “God-fearers” because of their high regard for the God of Israel and because they stood in awe of his person. True reverence for God must invariably express itself in good works and holy living (2 Cor 7:1). This holy fear is actually a source of joy (Ps 2:11) and a veritable fountain of life (Prv 14:27). The fear of the Lord is more valuable than the greatest material riches (15:16) because the Lord takes pleasure in those who hold him in such high regard (Ps 147:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEAR<\/h3>\nEmotional foreboding or dread of impending distress or misfortune. Often spoken of as the cause of people wanting religion. Yet fear alone can never account for true religion, since men are impelled to draw near unto God, the object of their worship. One does not desire to come close to the being one fears.<\/p>\nThe biblical conception of fear embraces a much wider dimension than does our common English word, which simply denotes dread or terror. While this meaning forms an essential part of the scriptural picture, it is by no means the primary significance, especially when the fear of God—an awe-inspiring reverence—is referred to.<\/p>\nThere is, of course, a legitimate place for the fear of God in the lower, anxious sense. We are told, “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb 10:31, rsv<\/span>). Jesus taught that we should fear God because he has the power to punish sin and consign people to utter destruction (Lk 12:4-5). Fear has a constructive role to play in enabling men to realize both the degeneracy of their souls and their need of divine forgiveness. The first occurrence of such fear may be found in Genesis 3, where Adam and Eve recoiled from the presence of the holy God whose commandment they had blatantly spurned. Their fear was entirely reasonable because they had been sternly warned that disobedience would incur a grave judgment. Fear is quite naturally the logical consequence of sin (Gn 3:10; 4:13-14; Prv 28:1). The Bible presents an array of people who are plagued with deep-reaching anxiety (e.g., Cain, Saul, Ahaz, and Pilate). Anxious fear seizes the wicked (Jb 15:24), surprises the hypocrite (Is 33:14), and consumes evildoers (Ps 73:19), whose faithless lives are characterized by fear (Rv 21:8). Pharaoh’s mighty host was virtually paralyzed by fear as God moved against them (Ex 15:16), and Job’s associate Bildad spoke of men driven to their knees by the judgments of God (Jb 18:11).<\/p>\nFear has a tendency to either immobilize people or seriously affect their activity. This is especially true of the spiritually uncommitted. Saul’s fear of the people caused him to transgress the commandment of God (1 Sm 15:24). The parents whose blind son was miraculously healed by Jesus were afraid to support Christ because they feared the Jews (Jn 9:22). In the parable of the talents Jesus told of a man whose fear prevented him from doing his reasonable duty (Mt 25:25).<\/p>\nJesus Christ, by his atoning death, resurrection, and heavenly intercession for believers, is the unique liberator from fear. The apostle Paul encouraged the Romans (Rom 8:15) by informing them that in their conversion to Christ they received the Holy Spirit, not as a spirit of fear and bondage, but as the spirit of adoption, whereby they could address God as “Abba” (the Aramaic word commonly used by Jewish children to address their fathers). This is the word by which our Lord Jesus addressed his heavenly Father and which Christians, by virtue of their adoption into the family of God, may also use in speaking to God (Gal 4:6). Recipients of God’s love have received a dynamic force for casting out their anxieties (1 Jn 4:18).<\/p>\nUnwarranted fear may harm the efforts of the people of God. Jeremiah was warned by God not to fear the faces of his opponents (Jer 1:8) lest God allow calamity to befall him (v 17). Similar calls to courage were given to Jeremiah’s contemporary, Ezekiel, and to a great many others (Jos 1:7-9; Ez 2:6). We realize that even godly people are tempted to fear and may be temporarily overwhelmed (Ps 55:5). Therefore, God repeatedly counsels his people not to succumb to that temptation (Is 8:12; Jn 14:1, 27). He tells them to heap their anxieties upon the God of their redemption, whose care for his sheep is infinitely great (1 Pt 5:7). Faith, then, is the indispensable antecedent of fearlessness as seen in the words of Isaiah: “Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace, whose mind is stayed on thee: because he trusteth in thee” (Is 26:3, kjv<\/span>). The psalmists repeatedly stress the role of faith in conquering fear (Pss 37:1; 46:2; 112:7).<\/p>\nGenuine faith is expressed in, and animated by, a reverential awe, and this is the basic meaning of the biblical idea of the fear of God. Unless there is personal awareness of the awesome and majestic sovereignty of God, it is impossible to have a meaningful faith existing in one’s heart (Pss 5:7; 89:7). Though Christians are to be liberated from the fear of men (Heb 13:6), death (2:15), and life in general (2 Tm 1:6-7), they must never lose their sense of the awesomeness of God. Such awareness not only leads to true wisdom (Ps 111:10) but also provides direction for the child of God throughout life (Eph 5:21; Phil 2:12). Those who love God learn of wholesome fear by searching the Scriptures (Prv 2:3-5), the Word of God, which the ancient Israelites were commanded to cleave to and obey as evidence of their reverence for God (Dt 6:2). In Acts 10:2 Cornelius and his family were called “God-fearers” because of their high regard for the God of Israel and because they stood in awe of his person. True reverence for God must invariably express itself in good works and holy living (2 Cor 7:1). This holy fear is actually a source of joy (Ps 2:11) and a veritable fountain of life (Prv 14:27). The fear of the Lord is more valuable than the greatest material riches (15:16) because the Lord takes pleasure in those who hold him in such high regard (Ps 147:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEAR Emotional foreboding or dread of impending distress or misfortune. Often spoken of as the cause of people wanting religion. Yet fear alone can never account for true religion, since men are impelled to draw near unto God, the object of their worship. One does not desire to come close to the being one fears. The biblical conception of fear embraces a much wider dimension than does our common English word, which simply denotes dread or terror. While this meaning forms an essential part of ...","summary_en":"FEAR Emotional foreboding or dread of impending distress or misfortune. Often spoken of as the cause of people wanting religion. Yet fear alone can never account for true religion, since men are impelled to draw near unto God, the object of their worship. One does not desire to come close to the being one fears. The biblical conception of fear embraces a much wider dimension than does our common English word, which simply denotes dread or terror. While this meaning forms an essential part of ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48797,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:11","content_ro":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","summary_en":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":76423,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:11","content_ro":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","summary_en":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":104049,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:11","content_ro":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","summary_en":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Psalmi 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Psalmi 2:11","content_ro":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"2:11-12<\/strong> rejoice:<\/em> Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son<\/em> (or Submit to God’s royal Son,<\/em> or kiss the son<\/em>): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy<\/em> to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","summary_en":"2:11-12 rejoice: Rulers must welcome the Son as their true and only King. • Submit to God’s royal son (or Submit to God’s royal Son, or kiss the son): Kissing was an expression of submission (Hos 13:2). • The Lord gives joy to all who fear him (Ps 1:1-2) and trust him (18:30; 34:22; 119:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":63019,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms","title_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","summary_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","summary_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63065,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90645,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms","title_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","summary_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","summary_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90691,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118271,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms","title_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","summary_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","summary_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118317,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145897,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms","title_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Trusting God in the Psalms<\/h3>\nThe Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11).<\/p>\nFor the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion for growth in trust (9:9; 25:2; 46:1; 55:23; 57:1; 59:16; 62:8; 78:7). The godly are not afraid of life’s circumstances (56:3-4, 11; 112:7) but grow more confident in the midst of them (112:7; 125:1).<\/p>\nThe Lord rescues, cares for, and rewards his people who trust in him (see 7:1; 16:1; 25:20; 26:1; 31:1-2, 4, 19; 34:22; 37:39-40; 86:2). They are blessed (2:12; 22:4-5; 34:8; 40:4; 84:12) as they long for God’s redemption (37:7, 34; 38:15; 40:1; 119:166; 130:5-6). Faith in the Lord gives reason to rejoice and praise the Lord (5:11; 18:30-36; 28:7; 40:3; 56:4; 64:10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 7:1; 9:9; 11:1; 18:30-36; 22:4-5, 8-9; 25:1-3, 20; 26:1; 28:7; 31:1-6; 34:8-10; 37:3-9; 40:1-4; 46:1; 56:3-4, 11; 62:1-12; 64:10; 78:7; 84:12; 86:2; 112:7; 115:9-11; 119:42; 125:1; 130:5-6; 141:8; Prov 3:5; 22:19; Isa 26:4; 40:31; Jer 17:7; Heb 10:35<\/p>","summary_ro":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","summary_en":"Trusting God in the Psalms The Lord’s love leads people to trust in him (13:5; 17:7; 21:7; 32:10; 36:7; 52:8; 143:8). His name and reputation also encourage people’s trust (9:10; 20:7; 33:21). The godly reject idolatry and any commitment that detracts from their absolute trust in the Lord (31:6, 14; 44:6; 49:6-13; 52:7). Trust in the Lord is a form of wisdom that rejects folly and evil and pursues the Lord’s way (31:19; 37:3, 5; 115:11). For the godly, every adversity in life is an occasion f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145943,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Anger","title_en":"God’s Anger","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Anger<\/h3>\nThe Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked.<\/p>\nThe psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians while sparing his people (Ps 78:49-50). But Israel itself became the object of God’s anger during the wilderness journey, when the people provoked the Lord through their rebelliousness (78:31; 106:29, 32). As a result, God took an oath: That rebellious generation would not enter his place of rest (95:8-11). So they died in the wilderness. But he restrained his anger and did not destroy Israel as they deserved (78:38). Similarly, throughout the period of the judges and the monarchy, God’s people were marked by disobedience and evil; subsequently, in his wrath, God allowed them to be controlled by foreign powers, who sent them into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:20–25:21). But again, God did not allow his people to be completely destroyed.<\/p>\nWhen God’s people sin and experience his anger, it can precipitate repentance, in which case the experience, though painful, can lead to great joy in God’s mercy and goodness (Ps 30:5; see also Heb 12:5-11).<\/p>\nThe New Testament makes clear that all of humanity was subject to God’s wrath on account of sin (Eph 2:1-3). But in his love, God sent his son, Jesus Christ, to atone for our sins and reconcile us to God (Rom 5:6-11; Eph 2:4-5). Those who turn to God in faith will thus escape the punishment that is coming at the future judgment of the world. In the end, Jesus will serve as the agent of God’s anger against the wicked (Pss 2:5-9; Rev 6:15-17; 19:11-16), who—along with God’s ultimate enemy, the devil—will be dealt with decisively (Rev 20:7-15).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nPss 2:5-9, 12; 6:1; 7:6, 11-13; 21:9; 27:9; 30:5; 38:1-10; 74:1; 78:18-64; 79:5-6; 80:4; 85:2-7; 86:15; 90:9-11; 95:8-11; 102:10-11; 103:8-9; 106:21-43; 110:5-7; 145:8; Isa 64:9-12; Lam 5:19-22; Rom 2:5-11; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:15-17; 11:18; 19:11-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","summary_en":"God’s Anger The Lord is just and righteous in his judgment (Ps 7:11), and he experiences anger at sin and injustice. The wicked stir up his anger and deserve his judgment (see 2:5, 12; 21:9; 56:7; 59:13; 69:24; 79:6; see also Rom 1:18). And while he is patient and slow to anger (86:15; 103:8; 145:8), he ultimately will not allow evil to remain unchecked. The psalmists understood Israel’s exodus from Egypt as an object lesson about God’s anger. God expressed his anger against the Egyptians whi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

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